Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

PTSD Among Families of Juvenile Justice-Involved Youth: Relation to Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Health Problems

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research documents trauma experiences and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among juvenile justice-involved youth; however, much less is known about the trauma and PTSD of their parents. This manuscript examines the extent to which youth PTSD and parent PTSD relate to youth’s mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression), emotional regulation, and drug use. Data are from a baseline sample of 149 youth-parent dyads recruited from the Los Angeles County Juvenile Court System to participate in an efficacy trial of EXPORT/STRIVE, a family-based intervention administered to both youth and their parents or guardians. The intervention aimed to reduce individual and interpersonal challenges youth report experiencing when leaving incarcerated settings. We compared youth’s mental health problems, emotional regulation, and drug use between youth with and without PTSD, as well as between youth with parents with PTSD and without PTSD. Results illustrate a high rate of exposure to traumatic events among both youth and parents, and significant associations between youth mental health problems and emotional regulation with youth PTSD but not parental PTSD. While parental PTSD was not directly associated with youth’s problems, given such high rates of trauma and PTSD among parents of juvenile justice-involved youth, family interventions targeting juvenile justice-involved youth should more intentionally consider the potential role parental trauma might play in intervention engagement and effectiveness.

Highlights

  • Parents of juvenile justice-involved youth are experiencing high rates of mental health symptoms.

  • Parents of juvenile justice-involved youth reported high levels of exposure to traumatic events and probable PTSD.

  • Youth PTSD is associated with exposure to direct and indirect trauma.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abram, K. M., Teplin, L. A., Charles, D. R., Longworth, S. L., McClelland, G. M., & Dulcan, M. K. (2004). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(4), 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.403.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Abram, K. M., Washburn, J. J., Teplin, L. A., Emanuel, K. M., Romero, E. G., & McClelland, G. M. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and psychiatric comorbidity among detained youths. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 58(10), 1311–1316. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2007.58.10.1311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amani, B., Milburn, N. G., Lopez, S., Young-Brinn, A., Castro, L., Lee, A., & Bath, E. (2018). Families and the juvenile justice system: Considerations for family-based interventions. Family & Community Health, 41(1), 55–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baglivio, M. T., & Epps, N. (2015). The interrelatedness of adverse childhood experiences among high-risk juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014566286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. P., & Kerig, P. K. (2011). Posttraumatic stress symptoms are associated with the frequency and severity of delinquency among detained boys. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(5), 765–771. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.597091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charak, R., Ford, J. D., Modrowski, C. A., & Kerig, P. K. (2019). Polyvictimization, emotion dysregulation, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and behavioral health problems among justice-involved youth: A latent class analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(2), 287–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0431-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, L. R., Hien, D. A., & Batchelder, S. (2008). The impact of cumulative maternal trauma and diagnosis on parenting behavior. Child Maltreatment, 13(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559507310045.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Conoley, J. C., & Kramer, J. J. (1989). The Tenth Mental Measurements Yearbook (pp. 111–113). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

  • Cross, D., Vance, L. A., Kim, Y. J., Ruchard, A. L., Fox, N., Jovanovic, T., & Bradley, B. (2018). Trauma exposure, PTSD, and parenting in a community sample of low- income, predominantly african american mothers and children. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 327–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1993). BSI Brief Symptom Inventory: Administration, Scoring, and Procedure Manual (4th Ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.

  • Dierkhising, C. B., Ko, S. J., Woods-Jaeger, B., Briggs, E. C., Lee, R., & Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Trauma histories among justice involved youth: Findings from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4, 20274. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20274.

  • Donenberg, G. R., Emerson, E., Bryant, F. B., Wilson, H., & Weber-Shifrin, E. (2001). Understanding aids-risk behavior among adolescents in psychiatric care: Links to psychopathology and peer relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(6), 642–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehring, T., & Quack, D. (2010). Emotion regulation difficulties in trauma survivors: the role of trauma type and PTSD symptom severity. Behavioral Therapy, 41, 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.04.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fazel, S., Doll, H., & Långström, N. (2008). Mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 25 surveys. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(9), 1010–1019. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.ObO13e31817eecf3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Hawke, J., & Chapman, J. F. (2013). Poly-victimization among juvenile justice-involved youths. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(10), 788–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.01.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., Hartman, J. K., Hawke, J., & Chapman J. F. (2008). Traumatic victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse risk among juvenile justice-involved youth. Journal of Child Adolescent Trauma, 1 (75). https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520801934456.

  • Fox, B. H., Perez, N., Cass, E., Baglivio, M. T., & Epps, N. (2015). Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abuse and Neglect, 46, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., Ritchie, I. K., & Conway, A. H. (2012). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress, and comorbidities in female adolescent offenders: Findings and implications from recent studies. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(1), 17247 https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.17247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gewirtz, A., Polusny, M., DeGarmo, D., Khaylis, A., & Erbes, C. (2010). Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq: Associations with parenting behaviors and couple adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(5), 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2008.09.095.Coherent.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Glasheen, C., Richardson, G. A., Kim, K. H., Larkby, C. A., Swartz, H. A., & Day, N. L. (2013). Exposure to maternal pre- and postnatal depression and anxiety symptoms: Risk for major depression, anxiety disorders, and conduct disorder in adolescent offspring. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4), 1045–1063. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000369.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haney-Caron, E., Brown, L. K., & Tolou-Shams, M. (2021). Brief Report: HIV testing and risk among justice-involved youth. AIDS and Behavior, 25, 1405–1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02978-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeve, M., Stams, G. J., van der Put, C. E., Dubas, J. S., van der Laan, P. H., & Gerris, J. R. (2012). A meta- analysis of attachment to parents and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 771–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9608-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K. (2012a). Introduction to Part I: Trauma and juvenile delinquency: Dynamics and developmental mechanisms. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 5(2), 83–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2012.671743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K. (2012b). Introduction to part II: Trauma and juvenile delinquency: New directions in interventions. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 5(3), 187–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K., Ward, R. M., Vanderzee, K. L., & Arnzen Moeddel, M. (2009). Posttraumatic Stress as a mediator of the relationship between trauma and mental health problems among juvenile delinquents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(9), 1214–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9332-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 4–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, D. K., Yang, Y., Joseph, E. D. et al. (2021). Preventing opioid use among justice-involved youth as they transition to adulthood: leveraging safe adults (LeSA). BMC Public Health, 21, 2133 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12127-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lieb, R., Isensee, B., Höfler, M., Pfister, H., & Wittchen, H. (2002). Parental major depression and the risk of depression and other mental disorders in offspring: A prospective-longitudinal community study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(4), 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.59.4.365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan-Greene, P., Kim, B. K. E., & Nurius, P. S. (2016). Childhood adversity among court-involved youth: Heterogeneous needs for prevention and treatment. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 5(2), 68.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(8), 815–830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milburn, N. G., Iribarren, F. J., Rice, E., Lightfoot, M., Solorio, R., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Desmond, K., Lee, A., Alexander, K., Maresca, K., Eastmen, K., Arnold, E. M., & Duan, N. (2012). A family intervention to reduce sexual risk behavior, substance use, and delinquency among newly homeless youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(4), 358–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nooner, K. B., Linares, L. O., Batinjane, J., Kramer, R. A., Silva, R., & Cloitre, M. (2012). Factors related to posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(3), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012447698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins-Dock, R. E. (2001). Family interventions with incarcerated youth: A Review of the Literature. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(5), 606–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X01455006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Rice, E., Comulada, W. S., Best, K., Elia, C., Peters, K., Li, L., Green, S., & Valladares, E. (2012). Intervention outcomes among HIV-affected families over 18 months. AIDS and Behavior, 16(5), 1265–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0075-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson, K. W., Wilson, C. K., Padrón, E., Lee, S., & Gavron, L. (2016). Maternal PTSD and children’s adjustment: parenting stress and emotional availability as proposed mediators. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 693–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlak, A. J., & Mcpherson, K. (2010). Youth’s needs and services. OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 10–11. Retrieved from http://syrp.org/images/Needs and Services_SYRP Report.pdf

  • Sherman, M. D., Gress Smith, J. L., Straits-Troster, K., Larsen, J. L., & Gewirtz, A. (2016). Veterans’ perceptions of the impact of PTSD on their parenting and children. Psychological Services, 13(4), 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Decker, K. B., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6(2), 96–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stimmel, M. A., Cruise, K. R., Ford, J. D., & Weiss, R. A. (2014). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology, and aggression in male juvenile offenders. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(2), 184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teplin, L. A., Abram, K. M., McClelland, G. M., Dulcan, M. K., & Mericle, A. A. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(12), 1133–1143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teplin, L. A., Elkington, K. S., McClelland, G. M., Abram, K. M., Mericle, A. A., & Washburn, J. J. (2005). Major mental disorders, substance use disorders, comorbidity, and HIV-AIDS risk behaviors in juvenile detainees. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 56(7), 823–828. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.7.823.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theokas, C., & Lerner, R. M. (2006). Promoting positive development in adolescence: The role of ecological assets in families, schools, and neighborhoods. Applied Developmental Science, 10(2), 61–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tolou-Shams, M., Dauria, E., Conrad, S. M., Kemp, K., Johnson, S., & Brown, L. K. (2017). Outcomes of a family-based HIV prevention intervention for substance using juvenile offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 77, 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2017.03.013.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tolou-Shams, M., Brown, L. K., Marshall, B. D. L., Dauria, E., Koinis-Mitchell, D., Kemp, K., & Poindexter, B. (2019). The behavioral health needs of first-time offending justice-involved youth: substance use, sexual risk, and mental health. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 28(5), 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2020.1774023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tolou-Shams, M., Folk, J. B., Marshall, B. D. L., Dauria, E. F., Kemp, K., Li, Y., Koinis- Mitchell, D., Brown, L. K. (2021). Predictors of cannabis use among first-time justice- involved youth: a cohort study. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108754.

  • Trivits, L., & McCallum, D. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). State of the science and practice in parenting intervention in childhood; Literature review and synthesis. Washington, D.C.: Abt Associates.

  • Tsai, J., David, D. H., Edens, E. L., & Crutchfield, A. (2013). Considering child care and parenting needs in Veterans Affairs mental health services. Evaluation and Program Planning, 39, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2013.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valentino, K., Berkowitz, S., & Smith Stover, C. (2010). Parenting Behaviors and Posttraumatic Symptoms in relation to children’s symptatology following a traumatic event. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(3), 403–407. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2016). Relational patterns between caregivers with ptsd and their nonexposed children: A Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, S. C., Bishop, A. S., Pullmann, M. D., & Bauer, G. (2015). A research framework for understanding the practical impact of family involvement in the juvenile justice system: The Juvenile Justice Family Involvement Model. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56(3-4), 408–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9755-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, A., Lantos, H., McDaniel, T., & Winslow, H. (2019). Disrupting the link between maltreatment and delinquency: how school, family, and community factors can be protective. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 588 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6906-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was supported by National Institutes of Health (US) grant 2P20 MD000182.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa

    Deirdre Pieterse, Bronwyn Myers & Norweeta G. Milburn

  2. University of Southern California, 669 W 34th St, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA

    B. K. Elizabeth Kim

  3. University of California at Los Angeles, 760 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90024, USA

    Alex Klomhaus, W. Scott Comulada, Susana A. López, Eraka Bath, Alan Semaan & Norweeta G. Milburn

  4. Charles Drew University, 1731 E 120th St, Los Angeles, CA, 90059, USA

    Bita Amani

  5. Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Francie van Zijl Drive, Parowvallei, Cape Town, 7505, Tygerberg, South Africa

    Bronwyn Myers

Authors
  1. Deirdre Pieterse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. B. K. Elizabeth Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alex Klomhaus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. W. Scott Comulada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Susana A. López
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Eraka Bath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Bita Amani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Bronwyn Myers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Alan Semaan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Norweeta G. Milburn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Norweeta G. Milburn.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

This study was approved by the UCLA Institutional Review Board. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pieterse, D., Kim, B.K.E., Klomhaus, A. et al. PTSD Among Families of Juvenile Justice-Involved Youth: Relation to Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Health Problems. J Child Fam Stud 31, 1947–1956 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02302-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02302-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation