Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Lot to Maintain: Caregiver Accommodation of Sensory Processing Differences in Early Childhood

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Childhood sensory processing differences (SPD) have been linked with primary caregiver stress, while caregiver stress has been associated with reduced responsivity to the child. This pattern has the potential to influence the relationship between primary caregivers and their young children with SPD. The experiences of these caregivers illuminate the ways in which providers can better serve families and promote healthy connections. The aims of this study were to examine the ways in which caregivers described early attunement with their child with SPD and the ways they were able to accommodate their child’s specific sensory needs within the context of the parent-child relationship in the first three years of life. Qualitative data was collected using a semi-structured interview of 12 participants, who were self-identified primary caregivers of children with SPD. Children were aged 3–11 at the time of the interviews. Sensory processing scores indicated that the children demonstrated significant differences in sensory processing, including in several specific areas of sensory processing. During the interviews, participants described the ways that they accommodated their children’s specific sensory needs. Analysis resulted in four aspects of accommodation by caregivers: adjustment to specific kinds of touch or holding, finding new ways to interact, seeking new parenting approaches, and accommodation as connection. While caregivers described significant patterns of attunement, they also described associated strain. Recommendations for future research include examination of a more diverse sample including protective factors associated with cultural parenting practices that might benefit children with SPD, and the relationship with their caregivers.

Highlights

  • This study examined caregivers’ early attunement with their child with sensory processing differences.

  • Participants were attuned to their children’s specific sensory needs, even before formal evaluation.

  • Participants identified four specific aspects of their accommodation of their children’s sensory processing differences.

  • Caregivers described the need for supports and validation, particularly from providers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahn, R. R., Miller, L. J., Milberger, S., & McIntosh, D. N. (2004). Prevalence of parents’ perceptions of sensory processing disorders among kindergarten children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58, 287–293. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.58.3.287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. (1969). Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40, 969–1025. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41(1), 49–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127388.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. F. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social development: Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In M. P. M. Richards (Ed.), The integration of a child into a social world (pp. 99–135). Cambridge University Press.

  • Alegria, M., Vallas, M., & Pumariega, A. (2010). Racial and ethnic disparities in pediatric mental health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(4), 759–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.07.001.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, S., & Knott, F. (2016). How do children’s challenges to function and participation impact maternal stress? New Zealand Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63(2), 29–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altenhofen, S., Clyman, R., Little, C., Baker, M., & Biringen, Z. (2013). Attachment security in three-year-olds who entered substitute care in infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34, 435–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21401.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

  • Ausderau, K., Sideris, J., Little, L., Furlong, M., Bullock, J., & Baranek, G. (2016). Sensory subtypes and associated outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 9(12), 1316–1327. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1626.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, A. J. (2005). Sensory integration and the child. (Vol. 4). Western Psychological Services.

  • Azhari, A., Leck, Q., Gabrieli, G., Bizzego, A., Rigo, P., Setoh, P., & Esposito, G. (2019). Parenting stress undermines mother-child brain-to-brain synchrony: A hyperscanning study. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47810-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, H. N., Bernier, A., Bouvette-Turcot, A.-A., Tarabulsy, G. M., Pederson, D. R., & Becker-Stoll, F. (2017). Deconstructing maternal sensitivity: Predictive relations to mother-child attachment in home and laboratory settings. Social Development, 26, 679–694. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnekow, K. A., & Kraemer, G. W. (2005). The psychobiological theory of attachment: A viable frame of reference for early intervention providers. Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 25(1/2), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1300/J006v25n01_02.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Behrens, K. (2016). Recpnsidering attachment in context of culture: Review of attachment studies on Japan. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1140

  • Ben-Sasson, A., Soto, T., Martinez-Pedraza, F., & Carter, A. (2013). Early sensory over-responsivity in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders as a predictor of family impairment and parenting stress. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(8), 846–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12035.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bigelow, A. E., MacLean, K., Proctor, J., Myatt, T., Gillis, R., & Power, M. (2010). Maternal sensitivity throughout infancy: continuity and relation to attachment security. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.10.009.

  • Bornstein, M. H. (2013). Mother-infant attunement: A multilevel approach via body, brain, and behavior. In D. W. Haley, M. H. Bornstein, & M. Legerstee (Eds.), The infant mind: Origins of the social brain (pp. 266–300).

  • Bornstein, M. H., & Suess, P. E. (2000). Child and mother cardiac vagal tone: Continuity, stability, and concordance across the first 5 years. Developmental Psychology, 36(1), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boterberg, S., & Warreyn, P. (2016). Making sense of it all: The impact of sensory processing sensitivity on daily functioning of children. Personality and Individual Differences, 92, 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 350–373.

  • Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boydell, K. M., Gladstone, B. M., & Volpe, T. (2006). Understanding help seeking delay in the prodrome to first episode psychosis: A secondary analysis of the perspectives of young people. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 30(1), 54–60. https://doi.org/10.2975/30.2006.54.60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, G. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Neff, C. (2012). Father involvement, paternal sensitivity, and father−child attachment security in the first 3 years. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(3), 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027836.

  • Cameron, M., Cramer, K. M., & Manning, D. (2020). Relating parenting styles to adult emotional intelligence: A retrospective study. Athens Journal of Social Sciences, 7(3), 185–196. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajss.7-3-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang, W.-C., Tseng, M.-H., Chuang, I.-C., Lu, L., & Shieh, J.-Y. (2019). Exploring sensory processing dysfunction, parenting stress, and problem behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 73(1). https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2019.027607.

  • Cohen, S., Doyle, W. J., & Baum, A. (2006). Socioeconomic status is associated with stress hormones. Psychosomatic Medecine, 68(3), 414–420. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000221236.37158.b9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.

  • Doyle, C., & Cicchetti, D. (2017). From the cradle to the grave: The effect of adverse caregiving environments on attachment and relationships throughout the lifespan. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (1999). Sensory Profile: User’s manual. Psychological Corporation.

  • Dunn, W. (2007). Supporting children to participate successfully in everyday life using sensory processing knowledge. Infants and Young Children, 20(2), 84–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (2008). Technical Report: Sensory Profile. Pearson Education, Inc.

  • Dunst, C. J., & Kassow, D. Z. (2008). Caregiver sensitivity, contingent social responsiveness, and secure infant attachment. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 5(1), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel-Yeger, B. (2010). The applicability of the Short Sensory Profile for screening sensory processing disorders among Israeli children. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 33(4), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1097/MRR.0b013e32833abe59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, T., Saltzman-Benaiah, J., O’Hare, A., Goll, J., & Tuck, S. (2007). Associated features of Asperger Syndrome and their relationship to parenting stress. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 34(4), 503–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T. (1985). Attachment as psychobiological attunement: Being on the same wavelength. In M. Reite, & T. Field (Eds.), The psychobiology of attachment and separation (pp. 415–454).

  • Fletcher, T., Anderson-Seidens, J., Wagner, H., Linyard, M., & Nicolette, E. (2019). Caregivers’ perceptions of barriers and supports for children with sensory processing disorders. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 66(5), 617–626. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.12601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George, C., & Solomon, J. (2014). The caregiving system: A behavioral systems approach to parenting. In J. Cassidy, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. (pp. 833–856). Guilford Press.

  • Girme, Y. U., Jones, R. E., Fleck, C., Simpson, J. A., & Overall, N. (2020). Infants’ attachment insecurity predicts attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies in adulthood. Emotion, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000721.

  • Goldberg, S. (1977). Social competence in infancy: A model of parent-infant interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 23(3), 163–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S., & Glenwick, D. (2012). Correlates of Attachment Perceptions in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(10), 2056–2066. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1453-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gourley, L., Wind, C., Henninger, E. M., & Chinitz, S. (2013). Sensory processing difficulties, behavioral problems, and parental stress in a clinical population of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 912–921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9650-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greven, C. U., Lionetti, F., Booth, C., Aron, E., Fox, F., Schendan, H. E., Pluess, M., Bruining, H., Acevedo, B., Bijttebier, P., & Homberg, J. (2019). Sensory Processing Sensitivity in the context of Environmental Sensitivity: A critical review and development of researh agenda. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 98, 287–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardt, J., Dragan, M., & Engfer, A. (2011). Parent-child relationships in Poland and Germany: A retrospective study. Psychology, 2(5), 502–508. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2011.2507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, Y. R., & Park, J. S. (2012). Impact of attachment, temperament and parenting on human development. Korean Journal of Pediatrics, 55(12), 449–454. https://doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2012.55.12.449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jorge, J., deWitt, P. A., & Franszen, D. (2013). The effect of a two-week sensory diet on fussy infants with regulatory sensory processing disorder. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 43(3), 28–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeVine, R. (2004). Challenging expert knowledge: Findings from an African study of infant care and development. In U. P. Gielen, & J. Roopnarine, Advances in applied developmental psychology. Childhood and adolescence: Cross-cultural perspectives and applications. Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing.

  • Marlberg, N. T., & Mayes, L. (2015). The developmental perspective. In P. Luyten, C. Mayes, P. Fonagy, M. Target, & S. Blatt, Handbook of psychodynamic approaches to psychopathology. (pp. 47–64). Guilford.

  • May-Benson, T. A., & Schaaf, R. (2015). Ayres’ sensory integration. In I. Söderback, International handbook of occupational therapy interventions. 2nd ed. (pp. 633–647). Springer.

  • McIntosh, D. N., Miller, L. J., Shyu, V., & Dunn, W. (1999). Sensory Profile. Pearson.

  • Meins, E. (2013). Sensitive attunement to infants’ internal states: Operationalizing the construct of mind-mindedness. Attachment and Human Development, 15(5-6), 524–544. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.830388.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. J. (2006). Sensational Kids: Hope and Help for Children with Sensory Processing Disorder. Penguin.

  • Miller, L. J., Anzalone, M. E., Lane, S. J., Cermak, S. A., & Osten, E. T. (2007). Concept evolution in sensory integration: A proposed nosology for diagnosis. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(2), 135–140. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.61.2.135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. J., Schoen, S. A., Mulligan, S., & Sullivan, J. (2017). Identification of sensory processing and integration symptom clusters: A preliminary study. Occupational Therapy International, 2017, Article ID 2876080, 10 pages, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2876080.

  • Mulligan, S., Schoen, S. A., Miller, L. J., Valdez, A., & Magalhaes, D. (2019). The Sensory Processing 3-Dimensions Scale: Initial studies of reliability and item analyses. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy, 7(1), https://doi.org/10.15453/2168-6408.1505.

  • Nguyen, T., Abney, D. H., Salamander, D., Bertenthal, B. I., & Hoehl, S. (2021). Proximity and touch are associated with neural but not phsiological synchrony in naturalistic mother-infant interactions. NeuroImage, 244(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118599.

  • Nguyen, L., Huang, L. N., Arganza, G. F., & Liao, Q. (2007). The influence of race and ethnicity on psychiatric diagnoses and clinical characteristics of children and adolescents in children’s services. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(1), 18–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieto, C., Lopez, B., & Gandia, H. (2017). Relationships between atypical sensory processing patterns, maladaptive behavior and maternal stress in Spanish children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 61(12), 1140–1150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence-Based Nursing, 18, 34–35. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2015-102054.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostlund, B. D., Measelle, J. R., Laurent, H. K., Conradt, E., & Ablow, J. C. (2017). Shaping emotion regulation: attunement, symptomatology, and stress recovery within mother–infant dyads. Developmental Psychology, 59(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, J. P. (2013). Abnormal white matter microstructure in children with sensory processing disorders. NeuroImage, 2, 844–853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2013.06.009.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Padgett, D. K. (1998). Qualitative methods in social work research. Sage Publications.

  • Patterson, P. P., & Williams, S. (2007). Making sense of related services. Principal Leadership, 8(1), 64–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pittman, J. F., Keiley, M. K., Kerpelman, J. L., & Vaughn, B. E. (2011). Attachment, identity, and intimacy: Parallels between Bowlby’s and Erikson’s Paradigms. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 3, 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00079.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purvis, K. B., McKenzie, L. B., Cross, D. R., & Razuri, E. B. (2013). A spontaneous emergence of attachment behavior in at-risk children and a correlation with sensory defecits. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 26(3), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcap.12041.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roley, S. S., Mailloux, Z., Miller-Kuhaneck, H., & Glennon, T. J. (2007). Understanding Ayres’ Sensory Integration. OT Practice, 12(7).

  • Ruttle, P. L., Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., Schwartzman, A. E., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). Adrenocortical attunement in mother–child dyads: Importance of situational and behavioral characteristics. Biological Psychology, 88(1), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.06.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaaf, R. T.-C. (2011). The everyday routines of families of children with autism: Examining the impact of sensory processing difficulties on the family. Autism, 15(3), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361310386505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. N. (2001). Effects of a secure attachment on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 7–66. 10.1002/1097-0355(200101/04)22:1<7::AID-IMHJ2>3.0.CO;2-N.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, W., & Sears, M. (2001). The attachment parenting book: A commonsense guide to understanding and nurturing your child. Hachette Book Group.

  • Sobocko, K., & Zelenski, J. M. (2015). Trait sensory-processing sensitivity and subjective well-being: Distinctive associations for different aspects of sensitivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 83, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speranza, A. M., Malberg, N., & Steele, M. (2018). Mental health and developmental disorders in infancy and early childhood: The PDM-2. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 35(3), 328–337. https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. Basic Books, Inc.

  • Suchman, N. E., DeCoste, C. L., McMahon, T. J., Dalton, R., Mayes, L. C., & Borelli, J. (2017). Mothering from the inside out: Results of a second randomized clinical trial testing a mentalization-based intervention for mothers in addiction treatment. Development and Psychopathology, 29(2), 617–636. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000220.

  • Trommsdorff, G., & Rothbaum, F. (2008). Development of emotion regulation in cultural context. In M. Vandekerckhove, C. von Scheve, S. Ismer, S. Jung, & S. Kronast, Regulating emotions: Culture, social necessity, and biological inheritance (pp. 85–120). Blackwell Publishing.

  • Ursache, A., Merz, E. C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., & Noble, K. G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.020.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walbam, K. M. (2019). Integrating connection: A mixed-methods exploration of sensory processing and attachment. Infants and Young Children, 32(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, S. J., Wilson, P., Hertenstein, M. J., & Campos, R. (2000). The tactile context of a mother’s caregiving: Implications for attachment of low birth weight infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 23(1), 91–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitcomb, D. A., Carrasco, R. C., Neuman, A., & Kloos, H. (2015). Correlational research to examine the relation between attachment and sensory modulation in children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2015.015503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Salem State University, 352 Lafayette Street, Salem, MA, 01970, USA

    Katherine M. Walbam

Authors
  1. Katherine M. Walbam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katherine M. Walbam.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The author declares no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

Approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Simmons University. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Walbam, K.M. A Lot to Maintain: Caregiver Accommodation of Sensory Processing Differences in Early Childhood. J Child Fam Stud 32, 2199–2213 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02242-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02242-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation