Abstract
Objectives
Childhood exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with numerous negative outcomes such as externalizing behavior problems, including bullying. However, most prior research examining the relationship between IPV exposure and bullying has relied on relatively small, unrepresentative samples and did not examine this relationship in the context of additional family dynamics and adverse stressors.
Methods
Using cross-sectional data from the 2011/12 National Survey of Children’s Health, a nationally representative sample of 95,677 families, we conducted hierarchical multiple regression analysis to examine the association between parent-reported child exposure to IPV and bullying behavior within the context of multiple stressors and dynamics at the level of the child, family, and community.
Results
Results indicate a significant relationship exists between IPV exposure and bullying, which remained significant after accounting for additional stressors and family dynamics (b = 0.17, SE = 0.04, p < .001). Bullying behavior was also significantly associated with a wide range of other demographic and family functioning variables.
Conclusions
Findings confirm a relationship between IPV exposure and bullying behavior within a large, nationally representative sample. Further, the relationship between IPV exposure and bullying behavior remained significant after accounting for additional family, child and community stressors and dynamics. Recommendations for future research are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. A. (1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist 4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Allison, S., Roeger, L., & Reinfeld-Kirkman, N. (2009). Does school bullying affect adult health? Population survey of health-related quality of life and past victimization. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43(12), 1163–1170. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048670903270399.
Arseneault, L., Walsh, E., Trzesniewski, K., Newcombe, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Bullying victimization uniquely contributes to adjustment problems in young children: a nationally representative cohort study. Pediatrics, 118, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2388.
Baglivio, M. T., Epps, N., Swartz, K., Sayedul, M., Sheer, A., & Hardt, N. S. (2014). The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in the lives of juvenile offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 3(2), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128715570628.
Baldry, A. (2003). Bullying in schools and exposure to domestic violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(7), 713–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(03)00114-5.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bauer, N. S., Herrenkohl, T. I., Lozano, P., Rivara, F. P., Hill, K. G., & Hawkins, J. D. (2006). Childhood bullying involvement and exposure to intimate partner violence. Pediatrics, 118, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2509.
Bellis, M. A., Lowey, H., Leckenby, N., Hughes, K., & Harrison, D. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: retrospective study to determine their impact on adult health behaviors and health outcomes in a UK population. Journal of Public Health, 36, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdt038.
Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Brieding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., & Stevens, M. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/nisvs_re- 866port2010-a.pdf.
Blumberg S. J., Foster E. B., Frasier A. M. (2007). Design and operation of the National Survey of Children’s Health, 2007. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Stat 1(55). 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_01/sr01_055.pdf.
Bronfrenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds), The international encyclopedia of education. 2nd (pp. 1643–1647). New York, NY: Elsevier Sciences.
Carlyle, K. E., & Steinman, K. J. (2007). Demographic differences in the prevalence, co‐occurrence, and correlates of adolescent bullying at school. Journal of School Health, 77, 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00242.x.
Catone, G., Marwaha, S., Kuipers, E., Lennox, B., Freeman, D., Bebbington, P., & Broome, M. (2015). Bullying victimisation and risk of psychotic phenomena: analyses of British national survey data. Lancet Psychiatry, 2, 618–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00055-3.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, Atlanta, Georgia, 65(6). https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/2015/ss6506_updated.pdf.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013). National Center for Health Statistics, State and Local Area Integrated Telephone Survey. 2011–2012 National Survey of Children’s Health Quick Facts, Chicago, Illinois. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/slaits/nsch.htm.
Chan, Y., & Yeung, J. (2009). Children living with violence within the family and its sequel: a meta-analysis from 1995–2006. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.001.
Connell, N. M., Morris, R. G., & Piquero, A. R. (2017). Exploring the link between being bullied and adolescent substance use. Victims & Offenders, 12, 277–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2015.1055416.
Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25, 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149.
Copeland, W. E., Wolke, D., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adolescence. Journal of American Medical Association Psychiatry, 70, 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.504.
Davies, L., Ford-Gilboe, M., Willson, A., Varcoe, C., Wuest, J., Campbell, J., & Scott-Storey, K. (2015). Patterns of cumulative abuse among female survivors of intimate partner violence: links to women's health and socioeconomic status. Violence Against Women, 21, 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801214564076.
Dichter, M., Wagner, C., Borrero, S., Broyles, L., & Montgomery, A. (2017). Intimate partner violence, unhealthy alcohol use, and housing instability among women veterans in the veterans health administration. Psychological Services, 14, 246–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000132.
Duke, N. N., Pettingell, S. L., McMorris, B. J., & Borowsky, I. W. (2010). Adolescent violence perpetration: associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 125(4), e778–e786. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0597.
Eriksson, L., & Mazerolle, P. (2015). A cycle of violence? Examining family-of-origin violence, attitudes, and intimate partner violence perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(6), 945–964. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514539759.
Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., & Mebane, S. (2016). Recollections of childhood bullying and multiple forms of victimization: correlates with psychological functioning among college students. Social Psychology of Education, 19(4), 715–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9352-z.
Evans, S. E., Davies, C., & DiLillo, D. (2008). Exposure to domestic violence: a meta-analysis of child and adolescent outcomes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.02.005.
Ferguson, C., San Miguel, C., & Hartley, R. (2009). A multivariate analysis of youth violence and aggression: the influence of family, peers, depression, and media violence. Journal of Pediatrics, 155, 904–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.06.021.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth: an update. Journal of American Medical Association Pediatrics, 167, 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.42.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse results from the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence. Journal of American Medical Association Pediatrics, 169, 746–754. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676.
Frisén, A., Jonsson, A., & Persson, C. (2007). Adolescents' perception of bullying: who is the victim? Who is the bully? What can be done to stop bullying? Adolescence, 42, 749–761.
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Castor, L. E., Miller, L. E., & Howell, K. H. (2012). The impact of intimate partner violence and additional traumatic events on trauma symptoms and PTSD in preschool-aged children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21724.
Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Hughes, H. M. (2003). Intervention for children exposed to interparental violence (IPV): assessment of needs and research priorities. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024962400234.
Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Ormrod, R. (2010). The overlap of witnessing partner violence with child maltreatment and other victimizations in a nationally representative survey of youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 734–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.03.001.
Hazen, A. L., Connelly, C. D., Kelleher, K. J., Barth, R. P., & Landsverk, J. A. (2006). Female caregivers’ experiences with intimate partner violence and behavior problems in children investigated as victims of maltreatment. Pediatrics, 117, 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2542.
Hawkes, N. (2015). Bullying in childhood may be linked to heart disease risk, study says. British Medical Journal, 350, 2738–2738. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h2738.
Herrenkohl, T. I., & Herrenkohl, R. C. (2007). Examining the overlap and prediction of multiple forms of child maltreatment, stressors, and socioeconomic status: a longitudinal analysis of youth outcomes. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 553–562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9107-x.
Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Moylan, C. A. (2008). Intersection of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 9, 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008314797.
Holt, M. K., Kantor, G. K., & Finkelhor, D. (2009). Parent/child concordance about bullying involvement and family characteristics related to bullying and peer victimization. Journal of School Violence, 8, 42–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220802067813.
Hong, J. S., & Eamon, M. K. (2009). An ecological approach to understanding peer victimization in South Korea. The Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19(5), 611–625.
Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: an ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violence Behavior, 17, 311–322.
Howells, N. L., & Rosenbaum, A. (2008). Effects of perpetrator and victim gender on negative outcomes of family violence. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9144-5.
Huang, C., Vikse, J., Lu, S., & Yi, S. (2015). Children's exposure to intimate partner violence and early delinquency. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 953–965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9727-5.
Hungerford, A., Wait, S. K., Fritz, A. M., & Clements, C. M. (2012). Exposure to intimate partner violence and children's psychological adjustment, cognitive functioning, and social competence: a review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 373–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.04.002.
Insana, S., Foley, K., Montgomery-Downs, H., Kolko, D., & McNeil, C. (2014). Children exposed to intimate partner violence demonstrate disturbed sleep and impaired functional outcomes. Psychological Trauma-Theory Research Practice and Policy, 6, 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033108.
Kim, M. J., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Abbott, R. D. (2011). Bullying at elementary school and problem behaviour in young adulthood: a study of bullying, violence and substance use from age 11 to age 21. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 21(2), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.804.
Kitzmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., & Kenny, E. D. (2003). Child witnesses to domestic violence: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 71, 339–352.
Knous-Westfall, H. M., Ehrensaft, M. K., Watson MacDonell, K., & Cohen, P. (2012). Parental intimate partner violence, parenting practices and adolescent peer bullying: a prospective study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 754–766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-01109528-2.
Krug, E, Dahlberg, L. L, Mercy, J. A, Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. 2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Ladd, G., Ettekal, I., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2017). Peer victimization trajectories from kindergarten through high school: differential pathways for children's school engagement and achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 109, 826–841. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000177.
Lamers-Winkelman, F., Willemen, A. M., & Visser, M. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences of referred children exposed to intimate partner violence: consequences for their wellbeing. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.07.006.
Lanier, P., Maguire-Jack, K., Lombardi, B., Frey, J., & Rose, R. A. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and child health outcomes: comparing cumulative risk and latent class approaches. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(3), 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2365-1.
Lereya, S. T., Copeland, W. E., Prof., J. C., & Prof, D. W. (2015). Adult mental health consequences of peer bullying and maltreatment in childhood: two cohorts in two countries. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(6), 524–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00165-0.
Lessne, D., & Cidade, M. (2015). Student reports of bullying and cyber-bullying: results from the 2013 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015056.pdf.
Logan, J. E., Leeb, R. T., & Barker, L. E. (2009). Gender-specific mental and behavioral outcomes among physically abused high-risk seventh-grade youths. Public Health Reports, 124(2), 234–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490912400211.
Moretti, M. M., Obsuth, I., Odgers, C. L., & Reebye, P. (2006). Exposure to maternal versus paternal partner violence, PTSD, and aggression in adolescent girls and boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 385–395.
Moylan, C. A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2010). The effects of child abuse and exposure to domestic violence on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9269-9.
Mustanoja, S., Luukkonen, A., Hakko, H., Räsänen, P., Säävälä, H., & Riala, K., STUDY-70 Workgroup. (2011). Is exposure to domestic violence and violent crime associated with bullying behaviour among underage adolescent psychiatric inpatients? Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 42, 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0222-9.
Niemelä, S., Brunstein-Klomek, A., Sillanmäki, L., Helenius, H., Piha, J., Kumpulainen, K., & Sourander, A. (2010). Childhood bullying behaviors at age eight and substance use at age 18 among males. a nationwide prospective study. Addictive Behaviors, 36(3), 256–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.10.012.
Nikiforou, M., Georgiou, S. N., & Stavrinides, P. (2013). Attachment to parents and peers as a parameter of bullying and victimization. Journal of Criminology, 2013, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/484871.
Quinn, S. T., & Stewart, M. C. (2018). Examining the long-term consequences of bullying on adult substance use. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9407-5.
Rollins, C., Glass, N. E., Perrin, N. A., Billhardt, K. A., Clough, A., Barnes, J., & Bloom, T. L. (2012). Housing instability is as strong a predictor of poor health outcomes as level of danger in an abusive relationship: findings from the SHARE study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(4), 623–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511423241.
Schoeler, T., Duncan, L., Cecil, C., Ploubidis, G., & Pingault, J. (2018). Quasi-experimental evidence on short- and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(12), 1229–1246. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000171.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Silberg, J. L., Copeland, W., Linker, J., Moore, A. A., Roberson-Nay, R., & York, T. P. (2016). Psychiatric outcomes of bullying victimization: a study of discordant monozygotic twins. Psychological Medicine, 46, 1875–1883. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000362.
Singham, T., Viding, E., Schoeler, T., Arseneault, L., Ronald, A., Cecil, C. M., & Pingault, J. (2017). Concurrent and longitudinal contribution of exposure to bullying in childhood to mental health: The role of vulnerability and resilience. Journal of American Medical Association Psychiatry, 74(11), 1112–1119. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2678.
Skopp, N. A., McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., & Rosenfield, D. (2007). Partner aggression and children's externalizing problems: maternal and partner warmth as protective factors. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.459.
Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., Tajima, E. A., Klika, J. B., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510362883.
Temple, J. R., Shorey, R. C., Tortolero, S. R., Wolfe, D. A., & Stuart, G. L. (2013). Importance of gender and attitudes about violence in the relationship between exposure to interparental violence and the perpetration of teen dating violence. Child Abuse Neglect, 37, 343–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.02.001.
Thornberg, R. (2010). Schoolchildren’s social representations on bullying causes. Psychology in Schools, 47, 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20472.
Thornberg, R. (2015). Distressed bullies, social positioning and odd victims: young people's explanations of bullying. Children & Society, 29, 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12015.
Thornberg, R., & Knutsen, S. (2011). Teenagers’ explanations of bullying. Child & Youth Care Forum, 40, 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-010-9129-z.
Thornberg, R., Rosenqvist, R., & Johansson, P. (2012). Older teenagers’ explanations of bullying. Child & Youth Care Forum, 41, 327–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-012-9171-0.
Voisin, D. R., & Hong, J. S. (2012). A conceptual formulation examining the relationship between witnessing domestic violence and bullying behaviors and victimization among youth. Educational Psychology Review, 24(4), 479–498.
Wathen, C., & MacMillan, H. (2013). Children's exposure to intimate partner violence: impacts and interventions. Paediatrics & Child Health, 18, 419–422. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/18.8.419.
Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: a meta-analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024910416164.
Yoon, S., Steigerwald, S., Holmes, M. R., & Perzynski, A. T. (2016). Children's exposure to violence: the underlying effect of posttraumatic stress symptoms on behavior problems. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 29, 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22063.
Zarling, A., Taber-Thomas, S., Murray, A., Knuston, J., Lawrence, E., Valles, N., & Bank, L. (2013). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms in young children exposed to intimate partner violence: examining intervening processes. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 945–955. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034804.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
BC: designed and executed the study, conducted the data analyses and wrote the paper. PL: collaborated with the design and writing of the study, wrote the methods section and served as a consultant for the first author throughout the analysis process. CFR: collaborated with the writing and editing of the final manuscript and also wrote the abstract as well as the sections on theories.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chesworth, B., Lanier, P. & Rizo, C.F. The Association Between Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence and Child Bullying Behaviors. J Child Fam Stud 28, 2220–2231 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01439-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01439-z