Abstract
Objective
Aggressive discipline is associated with a host of negative outcomes for children, while instilling positive discipline is a point of intervention in parent-child dyads. These practices may arise from the intergenerational transmission of parenting beliefs and subsequent practices. Specifically, this transmission involves individuals adopting accepting views of their disciplinary experiences, whether they were positive or negative. Although many studies of this phenomenon focus on current parents, research supports that these beliefs are evident prior to parenthood. The aim of this study was to investigate whether discipline acceptability affects the relationship between discipline experiences and the likelihood of using discipline strategies in the future in pre-parent undergraduate students.
Methods
This pathway was assessed with a nonparametric bootstrapping procedure in the domains of both positive and aggressive discipline strategies. Participants (N = 171, ages 17–26 years) completed the Dimensions of Discipline Inventory – Adult Recall and other measures online via a Qualtrics survey.
Results
The results demonstrated that discipline experiences may affect discipline intent indirectly through discipline acceptability for both positive and aggressive discipline strategies.
Conclusions
This provides preliminary support of the Theory of Planned Behavior as applied to parental constructs prior to parenthood. This also informs the theory of intergenerational transmission and may suggest targets of negative parenting prevention to research in pre-parent populations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afifi, T. O., Brownridge, D. A., Cox, B. J., & Sareen, J. (2006). Physical punishment, childhood abuse and psychiatric disorders. Child Abuse and Neglect, 30(10), 1093–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.04.006.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n22.
Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections. Psychology & Health, 26(9), 1113–1127. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.613995.
Amato, P. R. (1991). Psychological distress and the recall of childhood family characeristics. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(4), 1011–1019. https://doi.org/10.2307/353004.
Artioli, F., & Reese, E. (2014). Early memories in young adults from separated and non-separated families. Memory, 22(8), 1082–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.868907.
Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Oesterle, S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2009). Parenting practices and problem behavior across three generations: Monitoring, harsh discipline, and drug use in the intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1214–1226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016129.
Belsky, J., Hancox, R. J., Sligo, J., & Poulton, R. (2012). Does being an older parent attenuate the intergenerational transmission of parenting? Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1570–1574. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027599.
Belsky, J., Jaffee, S. R., Sligo, J., Woodward, L., & Silva, Pa (2005). Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: A prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3-year-olds. Child Development, 76(2), 384–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00852.x.
Benjet, C., & Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Spanking children: The controversies, findings, and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(2), 197–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00206-4.
Brauner, C. B., & Stephens, C. B. (2006). Estimating the prevalence of early childhood serious emotional/behavioral disorders: Challenges and recommendations. Public Health Reports, 121(3), 303–310. https://doi.org/10.2307/20056962.
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F. X., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., & Simons, R. L. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children’s affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72(4), 1231–1246. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00344.
Brody, G. H., Yu, T., Beach, S. R. H., Kogan, S. M., Windle, M., & Philibert, Ra (2014). Harsh parenting and adolescent health: A longitudinal analysis with genetic moderation. Health Psychology, 33(5), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032686.
Brouwer, J. J. (2011). Corporal punishment, the theory of planned behavior, and changing intentions for future parenting techniques. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 71(11–B), 7079.
Bugental, D. B., & Happaney, K. (2004). Predicting infant maltreatment in low-income families: The interactive effects of maternal attributions and child status at birth. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.234.
Burchinal, M., Skinner, D., & Reznick, J. S. (2010). European American and African American mothers’ beliefs about parenting and disciplining infants: A mixed-method analysis. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10(2), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190903212604.
Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Patterson, G. R., & Owen, L. D. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022518123387.
Carr, A., & Pike, A. (2012). Maternal scaffolding behavior: Links with parenting style and maternal education. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025888.
Chavis, A., Hudnut-Beumler, J., Webb, M. W., Neely, J. A., Bickman, L., Dietrich, M. S., & Scholer, S. J. (2013). A brief intervention affects parents’ attitudes toward using less physical punishment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37(12), 1192–1201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.06.003.
Cheema, J. R. (2014). Some general guidelines for choosing missing data handling methods in educational research. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 13(2), 53–75.
Chen, Z.-Y., & Kaplan, H. B. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00017.x.
Chung, E. K., Mathew, L., Rothkopf, A. C., Elo, I. T., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F. (2009). Parenting attitudes and infant spanking: the influence of childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 124(2), 278–286. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3247.
Clark, C. M., Dahlen, E. R., & Nicholson, B. C. (2015). The role of parenting in relational aggression and prosocial behavior among emerging adults. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 24(2), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1002653.
Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558.
Compton, E., Bentley, M., Ennis, S., & Rastogi, S. (2013). 2010 census race and Hispanic origin alternative questionnaire experiment final report. Suitland, MD: US Census Bureau.
Conger, R. D., Belsky, J., & Capaldi, D. M. (2009). The intergenerational transmission of parenting: Closing comments for the special section. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1276–1283. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016911.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(1), 31–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00003.
Deater-Deckard, K., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2003). The development of attitudes about physical punishment: an 8-year longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(3), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.351.
Dumas, J. E., Nissley-Tsiopinis, J., & Moreland, A. D. (2007). From intent to enrollment, attendance, and participation in preventive parenting groups. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9042-0.
Durrant, J, Trocmé, N, Fallon, B, Milne, C, Black, T., & Knoke, D. (2006). Punitive violence against children in Canada. CECW Information Sheet #41E. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto, Faculty of Social Work.
Erzinger, A. B., & Steiger, A. E. (2014). Intergenerational transmission of maternal and paternal parenting beliefs: The moderating role of interaction quality. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11(2), 177–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2013.870070.
Fauchier, A., & Straus, M. A. (2010). Psychometric properties of the Adult-Recall form of the Dimensions of Discipline Inventory. Unpublished manuscript. University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH: Family Research Laboratory.
Ferraro, K. (2004). The influence of parental perceptions on the use of booster seats: An application of the theory of planned behavior (Doctoral dissertation). https://fordham.bepress.com/dissertations/AAI3125011/.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Flaskerud, J. H. (2011). Discipline and effective parenting. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 32(1), 82–84. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2010.498078.
Flynn, C. P. (1994). Regional differences in attitudes toward corporal punishment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.2307/353102.
Flynn, C. P. (1996). Regional differences in spanking experiences and attitudes: A comparison of northeastern and southern college students. Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02333340.
Flynn, C. P. (1998). To spank or not to spank: The effect of situation and age of child on support for corporal punishment. Journal of Family Violence, 13(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022808716048.
Funderburk, B. W., & Eyberg, S. (2011). Parent–child interaction therapy. In: Norcross, J. C., VandenBos, G. R., Freedheim, D. K. (eds.) History of psychotherapy: Continuity and change. 2nd ed. (pp. 415–420). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Carrobles, J. A., & Muñoz-Rivas, M. (2012). Interparental violence and children’s long-term psychosocial adjustment: The mediating role of parenting practices. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n1.37299.
George, D., & Mallory, P. (2003). ). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gershoff, E. T. (2002a). Corporal punishment, physical abuse, and the burden of proof: Reply to Baumrind, Larzelere, and Cowan (2002), Holden (2002), and Parke (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 602–611. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.602.
Gershoff, E. T. (2002b). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539.
Gershoff, E. T., Goodman, G. S., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Holden, G. W., Jackson, Y., & Kazdin, A. E. (2018). The strength of the causal evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 73(5), 626–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000327.
Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191.
Graziano, A. M., & Namaste, K. A. (1990). Parental use of physical force in child discipline: A survey of 679 college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(4), 449–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626090005004002.
Hannan, T. E., Moffitt, R. L., Neumann, D. L., & Thomas, P. R. (2015). Applying the theory of planned behavior to physical activity: The moderating role of mental toughness. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(5), 514–522. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0074.
Hayes, A. F., & Scharkow, M. (2013). The relative trustworthiness of inferential tests of the indirect effect in statistical mediation analysis: Does method really matter? Psychological Science, 24(10), 1918–1927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613480187.
Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J. H., & Vesely, C. K. (2012). The transmission of parenting from fathers to sons. Parenting, 12(4), 282–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.709153.
Holland, G. W. O., & Holden, G. W. (2016). Changing orientations to corporal punishment: A randomized, control trial of the efficacy of a motivational approach to psycho-education. Psychology of Violence, 6(2), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039606.
Jackson, S., Thompson, R. A., Christiansen, E. H., Colman, R. A., Wyatt, J., Buckendahl, C. W., & Peterson, R. (1999). Predicting abuse-prone parental attitudes and discipline practices in a nationally representative sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00108-2.
Jones Harden, B., Denmark, N., Holmes, A., & Duchene, M. (2014). Detached parenting and toddler problem behavior in Early Head Start families. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(6), 529–543. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21476.
Jun, J., & Arendt, S. W. (2016). Understanding healthy eating behaviors at casual dining restaurants using the extended theory of planned behavior. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 53, 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.12.002.
Kelley, M. L., Nair, V., Rawlings, T., Cash, T. F., Steer, K., & Fals-Stewart, W. (2005). Retrospective reports of parenting received in their families of origin: Relationships to adult attachment in adult children of alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors, 30(8), 1479–1495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.03.005.
Kendziora, K. T., & O’Leary, S. G. (1993). Dysfunctional parenting as a focus for prevention and treatment of child behavior problems. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 15, 175–206.
Kim, H. K., Pears, K. C., Fisher, P. A., Connelly, C. D., & Landsverk, J. A. (2010). Trajectories of maternal harsh parenting in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34(12), 897–906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.06.002.
Lansford, J. E., Criss, M. M., Laird, R. D., Shaw, D. S., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Reciprocal relations between parents’ physical discipline and children’s externalizing behavior during middle childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 225–38. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000751.
Lee, E. L., Wilsie, C. C., & Brestan-Knight, E. (2011). Using parent-child interaction therapy to develop a pre-parent education module. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(7), 1254–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.02.024.
Li, D. (2015). Parental active mediation of young children’s television viewing: An application of the theory of planned behavior (Doctoral dissertation). Abstract retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International. (Accession No. 2015-99210-198).
Lindell, M. K., & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-sectional research designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.114.
Lukek, S. P. (2015). Intergenerational transfer of parenting styles: Correlations between experience of punitive discipline in childhood, opinion regarding discipline methods, and context of parenting. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 24(3), 299–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1009600.
MacKinnon, D. P. (2011). Integrating mediators and moderators in research design. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(6), 675–681. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731511414148.
Mahoney, A., Donnelly, W. O., Boxer, P., & Lewis, T. (2003). Marital and severe parent-to-adolescent physical aggression in clinic-referred families: Mother and adolescent reports on co-occurrence and links to child behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.1.3.
Mahrer, N. E., Winslow, E., Wolchik, S. A., Tein, J.-Y., & Sandler, I. N. (2014). Effects of a preventive parenting intervention for divorced families on the intergenerational transmission of parenting attitudes in young adult offspring. Child Development, 85(5), 2091–2105. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12258.
Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.23.
McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. J., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(2), 97–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.521684.
McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Olson, A. L., Forehand, R., Massari, C., & Zens, M. S. (2007). Harsh discipline and child problem behaviors: The roles of positive parenting and gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22(4), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9070-6.
Miller, G. E., & Prinz, R. J. (2003). Engagement of families in treatment for childhood conduct problems. Behavior Therapy, 34(4), 517–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(03)80033-3.
Neppl, T. K., Conger, R. D., Scaramella, L. V., & Ontai, L. L. (2009). Intergenerational continuity in parenting behavior: Mediating pathways and child effects. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1241–1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014850.
Orr, J. M., Sackett, P. R., & Dubios, C. L. (1991). Outlier detection and treatment in I/O psychology: A survey of researcher beliefs and an empirical illustration. Personnel Psychology, 44(3), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb02401.x.
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. The American Psychologist, 44(2), 329–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.329.
Pazdera, A. L., McWey, L. M., Mullis, A., & Carbonell, J. (2013). Child sexual abuse and the superfluous association with negative parenting outcomes: The role of symptoms as predictors. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 39(1), 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2011.00272.x.
Pepping, C. A., Davis, P. J., O’Donovan, A., & Pal, J. (2015). Individual differences in self-compassion: The role of attachment and experiences of parenting in childhood. Self and Identity, 14(1), 104–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.955050.
Perry, A. R., & Langley, C. (2013). Even with the best of intentions: Paternal involvement and the theory of planned behavior. Family Process, 52(2), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12013.
Pew Research Center. (2015). Multiracial in America: Proud, diverse and growing in numbers. Washington, DC: Author.
Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Zelli, A. (2000). Discipline responses: Influences of parents’ socioeconomic status, ethnicity, beliefs about parenting, stress, and cognitive-emotional processes. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 380–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.14.3.380.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553.
Puff, J., & Renk, K. (2014). Relationships among parents’ economic stress, parenting, and young children’s behavior problems. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 45(6), 712–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-014-0440-z.
Richter, J., & Eisemann, M. (2001). Stability of memories of parental rearing among psychiatric inpatients: A replication based on EMBU subscales. Psychopathology, 34(6), 318–325. https://doi.org/10.1159/000049331.
Robinson, D. H., Funk, D. C., Beth, A., & Bush, A. M. (2005). Increasing knowledge about ineffectiveness to build more consistent moral and informational beliefs. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14(2), 117–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-0052706-9.
Rodriguez, C. M. (2003). Parental discipline and abuse potential affects on child depression, anxiety, and attributions. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(4), 809–817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00809.x.
Roskam, I. (2013). The transmission of parenting behavior within the family: An empirical study across three generations. Psychologica Belgica, 53(3), 49–64. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb-53-3-49.
Rothrauff, T. C., Cooney, T. M., & Jeong, S. A. (2009). Remembered parenting styles and adjustment in middle and late adulthood. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 64(1), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbn008.
Shaffer, A., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Herbers, J. E., & Masten, A. S. (2009). Intergenerational continuity in parenting quality: The mediating role of social competence. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1227–1240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015361.
Stoolmiller, M., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (1997). Parental discipline and child antisocial behavior: A contingency-based theory and some methodological refinements. Psychological Inquiry, 8(3), 223–229. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0803_12.
Straus, M. A., & Fauchier, A. (2011). Manual for the Dimensions of Discipline Inventory (DDI). Durham, NH: Family Research Laboratory, University of New Hampshire.
Taillieu, T. L., & Brownridge, D. A. (2013). Aggressive parental discipline experienced in childhood and internalizing problems in early adulthood. Journal of Family Violence, 28(5), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9513-1.
US Census Bureau. (2018). Hispanic origin. Retrieved August 20, 2018, https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic-origin/about.html
Van Leeuwen, K. G., Fauchier, A., & Straus, M. A. (2012). Assessing dimensions of parental discipline. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(2), 216–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9278-5.
Wang, M., Wang, X., & Liu, L. (2016). Paternal and maternal psychological and physical aggression and children’s anxiety in China. Child Abuse and Neglect, 51(88), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.018.
White, K. M., & Wellington, L. (2009). Predicting participation in group parenting education in an Australian sample: The role of attitudes, norms, and control factors. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30(2), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-009-0167-y.
Author Contributions
TCF: designed and executed the study, completed data analyses, and wrote the manuscript. JPB: collaborated with the design and writing of the manuscript, including edits of the final manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fleming, T.C., Borrego, J. Preliminary Support for the Theory of Planned Behavior in Pre-Parent Discipline Intentions. J Child Fam Stud 28, 1105–1115 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01331-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01331-w