Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Empathy, Depressive Symptoms, and Self-Esteem in Adolescence: The Moderating Role of the Mother–Adolescent Relationship

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A large body of literature provides support for the role of empathy as a prominent factor in socio-emotional development and functioning. Although deficits in empathy are known to associate with maladaptive behaviors, less literature documents the effects of excessive empathy, which has been found to relate to various internalizing problems such as depression. There are two types of empathy, cognitive and affective, which manifest themselves in different ways and thus, have differential effects on outcomes. Therefore, in a sample of 724 Belgian adolescents (Mage = 13.83 ± .96), the present study sought to elucidate the effects of cognitive and affective empathy on depressive symptoms and self-esteem. We also explored the interactive effects of empathy and adolescent perceived mother–child relationship quality in the prediction of our outcomes. Results revealed affective and cognitive empathy predicted outcomes concurrently, with affective empathy predicting more maladaptive outcomes and cognitive empathy predicting more positive outcomes. Interaction effects emerged between affective empathy and the relationship quality indicators. However, no interactions occurred with cognitive empathy. Further, longitudinal data revealed only cognitive empathy had long-term effects (predicting positive outcomes such as lower levels of depression and higher levels of self-esteem) suggesting that cognitive empathy may be a protective factor. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albiero, P., Matricardi, G., Speltri, D., & Toso, D. (2009). The assessment of empathy in adolescence: A contribution to the Italian validation of the “Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 393–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang, R. P., & Goh, D. H. (2010). Cyberbullying among adolescents: The role of affective and cognitive empathy, and gender. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41(4), 387–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., DeShazo, T. M., McCoy, M. G., Ellis, M., & Loney, B. R. (2000). The importance of callous-unemotional traits for extending the concept of psychopathy to children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 335–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belsley, D. A., Kuh, E., & Welsch, R. E. (1980). Detecting and assessing collinearity, in regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bolognini, M., Plancherel, B., Bettschart, W., & Halfon, O. (1996). Self-esteem and mental health in early adolescence: Development and gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 19(3), 233–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cascio, V. L., Guzzo, G., Pace, F., Pace, U., & Madonia, C. (2016). The relationship between paternal and maternal psychological control, self-esteem, and indecisiveness across adolescent genders. Current Psychology, 35, 467–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, W. A., & Laursen, B. (2004). Changing relationships, changing youth: Interpersonal contexts of adolescent development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 24(1), 55–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H., & Franzoi, S. L. (1991). Stability and change in adolescent self-consciousness and empathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 70–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Wied, M., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2007). Empathy and conflict resolution in friendship relations among adolescents. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 48–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deković, M., Buist, K. L., & Reitz, E. (2004). Stability and changes in problem behavior during adolescence: Latent Growth analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Shepard, S. A. (2005). Age changes in prosocial responding and moral reasoning in adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15(3), 235–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B., Karbon, M., Maszk, P., Smith, M., O’Boyle, C., & Suh, K. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to dispositional and situational empathy-related responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 776–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gambin, M., & Sharp, C. (2016). The differential relations between and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in inpatient adolescents. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47(6), 966–974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Morris, A. S., Gershoff, E., Valiente, C., Kupfer, A., & Eggum, N. D. (2013). Mother-adolescent conflict: Stability, change, and relations with externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Social Development, 22(2), 259–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooge, J., Decaluwé, L., & Goossens, L. (2000). Identiteit en psychisch welbevinden [Identity and well-being]. In J. Hooge, H. De Witte & L. Walgrave (Eds.), Jongeren in Vlaanderen: Gemeten en geteld. 12- tot 18-jarigen over hun leefwereld en toekomst (pp. 35–58). Leuven, Belgium: Universitaire Pers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaccard, J., & Turrisi, R. (2003). Interaction effects in multiple regression: Second edition. Quantitative applications in social sciences. 7(72) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of Adolescence, 29(4), 589–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanat-Maymon, M., & Assor, A. (2010). Perceived maternal control and responsiveness to distress as predictors of young adults’ empathic responses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(1), 33–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, M. T., Brewer, G., & Bethell, E. J. (2017). Sex-specific effect of recalled parenting on affective and cognitive empathy in adulthood. Current Psychology, 36(2), 236–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miklikowska, M., Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. (2011). Family roots of empathy-related characteristics: The role of perceived maternal and paternal need support in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 47(5), 1342–1352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsen, E. S., & Duong, D. (2013). Depressive symptoms and use of perspective taking within a communicative context. Cognition and Emotion, 27(2), 335–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Weiss, J., & Gilbert, P. (2002). Guilt, fear, submission, and empathy in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, J. V., Frick, P. J., Thornton, L. C., Wall Myers, T. D., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2017). Callous–unemotional traits predict self-reported offending in adolescent boys: The mediating role of delinquent peers and the moderating role of parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 53(2), 319–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., & Sobhan, M. (1992). Symptoms of depression in adolescence: A comparison of Anglo, African, and Hispanic Americans. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21(6), 639–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Soenens, B., Duriez, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Goossens, L. (2007). The Intergenerational transmission of empathy-related responding in adolescence: The role of maternal support. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(3), 299–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tone, E. B., & Tully, E. C. (2014). Empathy as a “risky strength”: A multilevel examination of empathy and risk for internalizing disorders. Development and Psychology, 26, 1547–1565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trinkner, R., Cohn, E. S., Rebellon, C. J., & Van Gundy, K. (2012). Don’t trust anyone over 30: Parental legitimacy as a mediator between parenting style and changes in delinquent behavior over time. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 119–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Linden, F. J., Dijkman, T. A., & Roeders, P. J. B. (1983). Metingen van kenmerken van het persoonssysteem en sociale systeem [Measurements of features of the person system and the social system]. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Hoogveld Instituut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Lissa, C. J., Hawk, S. T., Branje, S., Koot, H. M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2016). Common and unique associations of adolescents’ affective and cognitive empathy development with conflict behavior towards parents. Journal of Adolescence, 47, 60–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lissa, C. J., Hawk, S. T., Branje, S. J. T., Koot, H. M., Van Lier, P. A. C., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2015). Divergence between adolescent and parental perceptions of conflict in relationship to adolescent empathy development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 48–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lissa, C. J., Hawk, S. T., de Wied, M., Koot, H. M., van Lier, P., & Meeus, W. (2014). The longitudinal interplay of affective and cognitive empathy within and between adolescents and mothers. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1219–1225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lissa, C. J., Hawk, S. T., Koot, H. M., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. J. (2017a). The cost of empathy: Parent–adolescent conflict predicts emotion dysregulation for highly empathic youth. Developmental Psychology, 53(9), 1722–1737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lissa, C. J., Hawk, S. T., & Meeus, W. J. (2017b). The effects of affective and cognitive empathy on adolescents’ behavior and outcomes in conflicts with mothers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 158, 32–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Van Hulle, C. (2012). Empathy, guilt, and depression: When caring for others becomes costly to children. In B. Oakley, A. Knafo, G. Madhavan, D. S. Wilson, B. Oakley, A. Knafo & D. S. Wilson (Eds.), Pathological Altruism (pp. 321–344). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author Contributions

L.G.: in collaboration with L.M. and K.L., conceived of the study, executed data analyses/interpretation, and wrote manuscript. L.M.: collaborated in conception of the study and assisted in data analyses/interpretations and writing of the manuscript. E.T.: assisted in major revisions and editing of the manuscript, and aided in conceptualizing of theoretical framework and data analyses/interpretation. K.L.: collaborated in conception of the study and data analyses/interpretation and assisted in editing and revising of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30302, USA

    Lindsey M. Green & Erin B. Tone

  2. Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

    Lies Missotten & Koen Luyckx

Authors
  1. Lindsey M. Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lies Missotten
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erin B. Tone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Koen Luyckx
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lindsey M. Green.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and/or the national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Green, L.M., Missotten, L., Tone, E.B. et al. Empathy, Depressive Symptoms, and Self-Esteem in Adolescence: The Moderating Role of the Mother–Adolescent Relationship. J Child Fam Stud 27, 3964–3974 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1216-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1216-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation