Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Clinicians' Observations of Family Interactions in the Reunification Process: The Parent Child Checklist

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present article employed a sample of 365 families of children in foster care to conduct a validation test of a newly developed instrument, the Parent Child Checklist (PCC). The PCC is a 54-item direct observation measure assessing parent–child interactions in the context of a family session. The PCC was developed to support the effective implementation of an evidence-based intervention, Parent Management Training-Oregon model, in the Kansas child welfare system. The PCC was designed to capture two scales of child behavior (prosocial and problem behavior) and five parenting domains (encouragement, positive involvement, problem solving, communication skill, and effective discipline). A combination of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used in this first stage validation of the checklist. Results indicated the PCC scales obtained adequate internal consistency and interrater reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis supported 6 of the 7 expected scale domains; however, a two-factor solution was better - supported among the discipline items, labeled as effective and ineffective discipline. Test–retest reliability ranged from 0.45 to 0.80 across child behavior and parenting domains with alpha levels ranging from 0.65 to 0.88. A behavioral observation rating scale for clinicians that is reliable and feasible to implement can represent a significant improvement to practice-as-usual.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akin, B. A., Bryson, S. A., McDonald, T., & Walker, S. (2012). Defining a target population at high-risk of long-term foster dare: Barriers to permanency for families of children with serious emotional disturbances. Child Welfare, 91, 79–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aron, A., & Aron, E. (1999). Statistics for psychology. 2nd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspland, H., & Gardner, F. (2003). Observational measures of parent-child interaction: An introductory review. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 8(3), 136–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bessmer, J. L. (1998). The Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System II (DPICS II): Reliability and validity. Gainesville: University of Florida. Unpublished dissertation

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. A. E., & Barbarín, O. A. (1996). Gender differences in parenting a child with cancer. Social Work in Health Care, 22(4), 53–71. doi:10.1300/J010v22n04_04.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryson, S., Akin, B. A., Blase, K. A., McDonald, T., & Walker, S. (2014). Selecting an EBP to reduce long-term foster care: Lessons from a university-child welfare agency partnership. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 11, 208–221. doi:10.1080/15433714.2013.850325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bullard, L., Wachlarowicz, M., DeLeeuw, J., Snyder, J., Low, S., Forgatch, M., & DeGarmo, D. (2010). Effects of the Oregon model of Parent Management Training (PMTO) on marital adjustment in new stepfamilies: A randomized trial. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 485–496. doi:10.1037/a0020267.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bjørknes, R., Kjøbli, J., Manger, T., & Jakobsen, R. (2012). Parent training among ethnic minorities: Parenting practices as mediators of change in child conduct problems. Family Relations, 61, 101–114. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00683.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Patterson, G. R., & Ge, X. (1995). It takes two to replicate: A mediational model for the impact of parents’ stress on adolescent adjustment. Child Development, 66, 80–97. doi:10.2307/1131192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeGarmo, D. S., & Forgatch, M. S. (1999). Contexts as predictors of changing maternal parenting practices in diverse family structures: A social interactional perspective to risk and resilience. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.). Coping with divorce, single parenting and remarriage: A risk and resiliency perspective (pp. 227–252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degarmo, D. S., & Forgatch, M. S. (2002). Extending and testing the social interaction learning model with divorce samples. In J. B. Reid, G. R. Patterson & J. Snyder (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention (pp. 235–256). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeGarmo, D. S., Reid, J. B., Fetrow, R. A., Fisher, P. A., & Antoine, K. D. (2013). Maternal substance use and efficacy: The pathways home foster care reunification intervention. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 22, 388–406. doi:10.1080/1067828X.2013.788884.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. F. (1991). Scale development. Newbury Park, NJ: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Domenech Rodríguez, M. M., & Forgatch, M. S. (2012). Visitation: Session Log and Checklist of Parent Child Interactions. Eugene, OR: Implementation Sciences International, Incorporated.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: The Guilford Press.

  • Eyberg, S. M., Bessmer, J. N., Edwards, K., & Robinson, D. E. (1994). Dyadic Parent-Child. Interaction Coding System—II manual. Gainesville: University of Florida. Unpublished manuscript

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., Duke, M., & Boggs, S. R. (2005). Manual for the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System. Gainesville: University of Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. http://ctndisseminationlibrary.org/PDF/nirnmonograph.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgatch, M. S., & Domenech Rodríguez, M. M. (2016). Interrupting coercion: The iterative loops among theory, science, and practice. In T. J. Dishion, & J. J. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of coercive Relationship Dynamics (pp. 194–214). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgatch, M. S., Knutson, N. M., & Mayne, T. (1992). Coder impressions of ODS lab tasks. [Coder impression instrument]. Eugene, OR: Oregon Social Learning Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgatch, M. S., & Patterson, G. R. (2010). The Oregon Model of Parent Management Training (PMTO): An intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. In J. R. Weisz & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Evidence based psychotherapies for children and adolescents. 2nd edn. (pp. 159–178). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgatch, M. S., Patterson, G. R., DeGarmo, D. S., & Beldavs, Z. G. (2009). Testing the Oregon delinquency model with nine-year follow-up of the Oregon Divorce Study. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 637–660. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. 6th edn. New York, NY: Prentice Hall Pearson Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtan, A., Handegard, B. H., Thomblad, R., & Vis, S. A. (2013). Placement disruption in long-term kinship and nonkinship foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(7), 1087–1094. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.04.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, S. M., Chamberlain, P., Landsverk, J., & Mullican, C. (2010). Improving the mental health of children in child welfare through the implementation of evidence-based parenting interventions. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37, 27–39. doi:10.1007/s10488-010-0274-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurlburt, M. S., Chamberlain, P., DeGarmo, D. S., Zhang, J., & Price, J. (2010). Advancing prediction of foster placement disruption using brief behavioral screening. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 917–926. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.07.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeličić, H., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R. M. (2009). Use of missing data methods in longitudinal studies: The persistence of bad practices in developmental psychology. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 1195–1199. doi:10.1037/a0015665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kjøbli, J., & Ogden, T. (2012). A randomized effectiveness trial of brief parent training in primary care settings. Prevention Science, 13, 616–626. doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0289-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202. doi:10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data 539, New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7, 64–82. doi:10.1037//1082-989X.7.1.64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Olson, A. L., Forehand, R., Massari, C., & Zens, M. S. (2007). Harsh discipline and child problem behaviors: The roles of positive parenting and gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 187–196. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9070-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morsbach, S. K., & Prinz, R. J. (2006). Understanding and improving the validity of self-report of parenting. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9, 1–21. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0001-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus User’s Guide. Seventh edn. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. 2015

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogden, T., & Hagen, K. A. (2008). Treatment effectiveness of parent management training in Norway: A randomized controlled trial of children with conduct problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 607–621. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.4.607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. L., & Foster, S. L. (1991). Assessing childhood noncompliance with parental requests: Current status and future directions. In R. J. Prinz (Ed.), Advances in Behavioral Assessment of Children and Families 5, (139–170). London: Jessica Kingsley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R. (2005). The next generation of PMTO models. Behavior Therapist, 28(2), 25–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., & Forgatch, M. S. (1995). Predicting future clinical adjustment from treatment outcome and process variables. Psychological Assessment, 7, 275–285. doi:10.1037//1040-3590.7.3.275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2010). Cascading effects following intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 22(Special Issue 04), 949–970. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000568.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, B. A., Purcell, P., Navee, S., Moser, R. P., Henton, M. D., Proctor, E. K., Brownson, R. S., & Glasgow, R. E. (2012). Advancing the application, quality and harmonization of implementation science measures. Implementation Science, 7(119), 1–11. doi:10.1186/1748-5908-7-119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177. doi:10.1037//1082-989X.7.2.147.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, J., Reid, J., Stoolmiller, M., Howe, G., Brown, H., Dagne, G., & Cross, W. (2006). The role of behavior observation in measurement systems for randomized prevention trials. Prevention Science, 7, 43–56. doi:10.1007/s11121-005-0020-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, J. A., Millburn, N. G., Zane, J. I., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2009). Paternal and maternal influences on problem behaviors among homeless and runaway youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79, 39–50. doi:10.1037/a0015411.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Testa, M. F., & White, K. R. (2014). Insuring the integrity and validity of social work interventions: The case of the subsidized guardianship waiver experiments. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 11, 157–172. doi:10.1080/15433714.2013.847260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P. (2009). The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree (or does it?): Intergenerational patterns of antisocial behavior – The American Society of Criminology 2008 Sutherland Address. Criminology, 47, 297–325. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00153.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS); Administration on Children Youth and Families. (2012). Promoting social and emotional well-being for children and youth receiving child welfare services. Washington, DC: Author. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/resource/im1204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wachlarowicz, M., Snyder, J., Low, S., Forgatch, M., & DeGarmo, D. (2012). The moderating effects of parent antisocial characteristics on the effects of Parent Management Training – Oregon model (PMTOTM). Prevention Science, 13, 229–240. doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0262-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, A., Parent, J., Forehand, R., Edwards, M., Conners-Burrow, N., & Long, N. (2013). The relation of parent and child gender to parental tolerance of child disruptive behaviors. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 22, 779–785. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9632-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This manuscript was part of the Kansas Intensive Permanency Project (KIPP), which was funded by the Children’s Bureau, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under grant number 90-CT-0152. The article’s contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Children’s Bureau. The authors also wish to thank their community collaborators in this study: the Kansas Department for Children and Families, KVC Kansas, and Saint Francis Community Services, Inc. All protocols and data collection procedures and instruments were reviewed and approved by the Human Subjects Committee, The University of Kansas—Lawrence.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Welfare, University of Kansas, 1545 Lilac Lane, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA

    Becci A. Akin

  2. Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, USA

    Melanie M. Domenech Rodríguez

  3. School of Social Welfare, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA

    Yueqi Yan & Thomas P. McDonald

  4. Oregon Social Learning Center, Eugene, USA

    David S. DeGarmo

  5. Implementation Sciences International, Incorporated, Eugene, USA

    Marion S. Forgatch

Authors
  1. Becci A. Akin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Melanie M. Domenech Rodríguez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yueqi Yan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. David S. DeGarmo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Thomas P. McDonald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Marion S. Forgatch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Becci A. Akin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Akin, B.A., Rodríguez, M.M.D., Yan, Y. et al. Clinicians' Observations of Family Interactions in the Reunification Process: The Parent Child Checklist. J Child Fam Stud 26, 137–147 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0556-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0556-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation