Abstract
This study examined discrepancies in aging parents’ and middle-aged children’s evaluations of aging parents’ problems and how these discrepancies were associated with relationship characteristics. Using data from the Family Exchanges Study (dyad N = 331), discrepancies in the parents’ disabilities and life problems reported by parents and their offspring were examined. Children reported a greater number of disabilities and life problems in their parents’ lives than parents did. The discrepancy in the number of disabilities was associated with the frequency of phone contact, but not the frequency of in-person contact between generations. Findings confirm the gap in the evaluations of parents’ problems between generations, indicating that children may overestimate their parents’ problems, whereas parents may underreport their own problems. Frequent phone calls between aging parents and middle-aged children seem to play a positive role in conveying aging parents’ problems. The gap in knowledge of parents’ problems may lead to unmet needs and/or undesirable support exchanges between parents and offspring. Future research needs to consider both generations’ reports and to develop reliable methods to assess parents’ problems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Antonucci, T. C., Ajrouch, K. J., & Birditt, K. S. (2014). The convoy model: Explaining social relations from a multidisciplinary perspective. The Gerontologist,54, 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt118.
Aron, A. (2003). Self and close relationships. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 442–461). New York: Guildford.
Bangerter, L. R., Zarit, S. H., & Fingerman, K. L. (2016). Moderators of mother’s problems on middle-aged offspring depressive symptoms. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,71, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu081.
Bassett, S. S., & Folstein, M. F. (1991). Cognitive impairment and functional disability in the absence of psychiatric diagnosis. Psychological Medicine,21, 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700014677.
Bengtson, V. L. (2001). Beyond the nuclear family: The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds. Journal of Marriage and Family,63, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00001.x.
Birditt, K. S., Fingerman, K. L., & Zarit, S. H. (2010). Adult children’s problems and successes: Implications for intergenerational ambivalence. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,65, 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp125.
Birditt, K. S., Newton, N., & Hope, S. (2014). Implications of marital/partner relationship quality and perceived stress for blood pressure among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,69, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs123.
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (2008). Is well-being u-shaped over the life cycle? Social Science and Medicine,66, 1733–1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss (Vol. 3). New York: Basic Books.
Bowling, A., Seetai, S., Morris, R., & Ebrahim, S. (2007). Quality of life among older people with poor functioning. The influence of perceived control over life. Age and Ageing,36, 310–315. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afm023.
Cahill, E., Lewis, L. M., Barg, F. K., & Bogner, H. R. (2009). “You don’t want to burden them”: Older adults’ views on family involvement in care. Journal of Family Nursing,15, 295–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074840709337247.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American Psychologist,54, 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.165.
Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2000). Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79, 644–655. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.644.
Cheng, S.-T., Fung, H., & Chan, A. (2007). Maintaining self-rated health through social comparison in old age. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,62, P277–P285. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.5.P277.
Cicirelli, V. G. (1988). A measure of filial anxiety regarding anticipated care of elderly parents. The Gerontologist,28, 478–482. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/28.4.478.
Cicirelli, V. G. (2006). Caregiving decision making by older mothers and adult children: Process and expected outcome. Psychology and Aging,21, 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.209.
Cohen, S. (2004). Social relationships and health. American Psychologist,59, 676–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.676.
Coleman, M., Ganong, L. H., & Rothrauff, T. C. (2006). Racial and ethnic similarities and differences in beliefs about intergenerational assistance to older adults after divorce and remarriage. Family Relations,55, 576–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2006.00427.x.
Crutzen, R., & Göritz, A. S. (2010). Social desirability and self-reported health risk behaviors in web-based research: Three longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health,10, 720. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-720.
Demakakos, P., Nazroo, J., Breeze, E., & Marmot, M. (2008). Socioeconomic status and health: The role of subjective social status. Social Science and Medicine,67, 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.038.
Eiser, C., & Morse, R. (2001). Can parents rate their child’s health-related quality of life? Results of a systematic review. Quality of Life Research,10, 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1012253723272.
Eisinga, R., Grotenhuis, M., & Pelzer, B. (2013). The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, cronbach, or spearman-brown? International Journal of Public Health,58, 637–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3.
Farias, S. T., Mungas, D., & Jagust, W. (2005). Degree of discrepancy between self and other-reported everyday functioning by cognitive status: Dementia, mild cognitive impairment, and healthy elders. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry,20, 827–834. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1367.
Fingerman, K. L., Hay, E. L., Kamp Dush, C. M., Cichy, K. E., & Hosterman, S. J. (2007). Parents’ and offspring’s perceptions of change and continuity when parents experience the transition to old age. Advances in Life Course Research,12, 275–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-2608(07)12010-4.
Fingerman, K. L., Kim, K., Birditt, K. S., & Zarit, S. H. (2016). The ties that bind: Midlife parents’ daily experiences with grown children. Journal of Marriage and Family,78, 431–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12273.
Fingerman, K. L., Miller, L., Birditt, K. S., & Zarit, S. H. (2009). Giving to the good and the needy: Parental support of grown children. Journal of Marriage and Family,71, 1220–1233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00665.x.
Fukukawa, Y., Nakashima, C., Tsuboi, S., Niino, N., Ando, F., Kosugi, S., et al. (2004). The impact of health problems on depression and activities in middle-aged and older adults: Age and social interactions as moderators. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,59, P19–P26. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/59.1.P19.
Fung, H., & Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Sending memorable messages to the old: Age differences in preferences and memory for advertisements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,85, 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.163.
Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2006). Linked lives: Adult children’s problems and their parents’ psychological and relational well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family,68, 442–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00263.x.
Hank, K. (2007). Proximity and contacts between older parents and their children: A European comparison. Journal of Marriage and Family,69, 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00351.x.
Hay, E. L., Fingerman, K. L., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2008). The worries adult children and their parents experience for one another. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,67, 101–127. https://doi.org/10.2190/AG.67.2.a.
Heid, A. R., Zarit, S. H., & Fingerman, K. L. (2016a). “My parent is so stubborn!”—Perceptions of aging parents’ persistence, insistence, and resistance. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,71, 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu177.
Heid, A. R., Zarit, S. H., & Van Haitsma, K. (2016b). Older adults’ influence in family care: How do daughters and aging parents navigate differences in care goals? Aging and Mental Health,20, 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2015.1049117.
Jeste, D. V., & Oswald, A. J. (2014). Individual and societal wisdom: Explaining the paradox of human aging and high well-being. Psychiatry,77, 317–330. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2014.77.4.317.
Jokung, O., & Macé, S. (2013). Long-term health investment when people underestimate their adaptation to old age-related health problems. The European Journal of Health Economics,14, 1003–1013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-012-0449-9.
Karantzas, G., Evans, L., & Foddy, M. (2010). The role of attachment in current and future parent caregiving. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,65, P573–P580. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbq047.
Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Burk, W. J. (2010). A reinterpretation of parental monitoring in longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence,20, 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00623.x.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Newton, T. L. (2001). Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin,127, 472–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.472.
Kogan, A. C., Wilber, K., & Mosqueda, L. (2016). Person-centered care for older adults with chronic conditions and functional impairment: A systematic literature review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society,64, e1–e7.
Krause, N. (2006). Social relationships in late life. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (6th ed., pp. 181–200). New York: Academic Press.
Kwan, V. S., John, O., Kenny, D., Bond, M., & Robins, R. (2004). Reconceptualizing individual differences in self-enhancement bias: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Review,111, 94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.94.
Lawton, L., Silverstein, M., & Bengtson, V. (1994). Affection, social contact, and geographic distance between adult children and their parents. Journal of Marriage and Family,56, 57–68. https://doi.org/10.2307/352701.
Lemay, E. P., Pruchno, R. A., & Feild, L. (2006). Accuracy and bias in perceptions of spouses’ life-sustaining medical treatment preferences. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,36, 2337–2361.
Levy, S. R., & Macdonald, J. L. (2016). Progress on understanding ageism. Journal of Social Issues,72, 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12153.
Littell, R. C., Milliken, G. A., Stroup, W. W., Wolfinger, R. D., & Schabenberger, O. (2006). SAS for mixed models, Second Edition. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Matire, L. M., Stephens, M. A. P., Druley, J. A., & Wojno, W. C. (2002). Negative reactions to received spousal care: Predictors and consequences of miscarried support. Health Psychology,21, 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.21.2.167.
Moos, R. H., Brennan, P., Schutte, K., & Moos, B. (2006). Older adults’ coping with negative life events: Common processes of managing health, interpersonal, and financial/work stressors. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,62, 39–59. https://doi.org/10.2190/ENLH-WAA2-AX8J-WRT1.
Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,46, 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650504600206.
Pillemer, K., & Suitor, J. J. (2006). Making choices: A within-family study of caregiver selection. The Gerontologist,46, 439–448. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/46.4.439.
Reamy, A. M., Kim, K., Zarit, S. H., & Whitlatch, C. J. (2011). Understanding discrepancy in perceptions of values: Individuals with mild to moderate dementia and their family caregivers. The Gerontologist, 51(4), 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr010.
Rogers, C. R. (1979). The foundations of the person-centered approach. Education,100, 98–108.
Sarkisian, N., & Gerstel, N. (2008). Till marriage do us part: Adult children’s relationships with their parents. Journal of Marriage and Family,70, 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00487.x.
Silverstein, M., Gans, D., & Yang, F. M. (2006). Intergenerational support to aging parents: The role of norms and needs. Journal of Family Issues,27, 1068–1084. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x06288120.
Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development,71, 1072–1085. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00623.x.
Stein, C. H., Osborn, L. A., & Greenberg, S. C. (2016). Understanding young adults’ reports of contact with their parents in a digital world: Psychological and familial relationship factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies,25, 1802–1814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0366-0.
Suitor, J. J., & Pillemer, K. (2006). Choosing daughters: Exploring why mothers favor adult daughters over sons. Sociological Perspectives,49, 139–161. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2006.49.2.139.
Teo, A. R., Choi, H., Andrea, S. B., Valenstein, M., Newsom, J. T., Dobscha, S. K., et al. (2015). Does mode of contact with different types of social relationships predict depression in older adults? Evidence from a nationally representative survey. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society,63, 2014–2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.13667.
Uchino, B. N. (2009). Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. Perspectives on Psychological Science,4, 236–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x.
Umberson, D. (1992). Relationships between adult children and their parents: Psychological consequences for both generations. Journal of Marriage and Family,54, 664–674. https://doi.org/10.2307/353252.
Upton, P., Lawford, J., & Eiser, C. (2008). Parent–child agreement across child health-related quality of life instruments: A review of the literature. Quality of Life Research,17, 895–913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-008-9350-5.
Verbrugge, L. M., & Jette, A. M. (1994). The disablement process. Social Science and Medicine,38, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)90294-1.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin,90, 245–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245.
Wolf, D. A., Raissian, K. M., & Grundy, E. (2015). Parental disability, parent care, and offspring mental health outcomes. European Journal of Ageing,12, 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-015-0339-y.
Zickuhr, K., & Madden, M. (2012). Older adults and internet use: For the first time, half of adults ages 65 and older are online (pp. 1–23). Washington DC: Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Pew Research Center.
Funding
This study was supported by grants from the National Institute on Aging (NIA), R01AG027769, Family Exchanges Study II (Karen L. Fingerman, Principal investigator) and R03AG048879, Generational Family Patterns and Well-Being (Kyungmin Kim, Principal investigator). The MacArthur Network on an Aging Society (John W. Rowe, Network director) provided funds. This research also was supported by grant, 5 R24 HD042849 awarded to the Population Research Center (PRC) at The University of Texas at Austin by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, H.J., Kim, K., Bangerter, L.R. et al. Aging Parents’ and Middle-Aged Children’s Evaluations of Parents’ Disability and Life Problems. J Adult Dev 27, 135–146 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-019-09336-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-019-09336-x