Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mental Health and Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Singapore: An Examination of Gender Role in Caring

  • OriginalPaper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research has supported the notion that gender plays a significant role in coping and mental health outcome among parents of children with ASD. The current study aims to examine gender role in the relationship between mental health outcome and coping in parents of children with ASD in Singapore. This study involved 97 fathers and 106 mothers of children with ASD completing self-report questionnaires. MANOVA revealed mothers experienced significantly higher stress levels than fathers. Stress was a significant predictor of depression for fathers but not for mothers. Regression analyses found use of active avoidance coping moderated the relationship between stress and depression in both parents. Implications of these findings on intervention are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuk, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M. (2004). Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 109, 237–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adler, B. A., Wink, L. K., Early, M., Shaffer, R., Minshawi, N., McDougle, C. J., & Erickson, C. A. (2015). Drug-refractory aggression, self-injurious behavior, and severe tantrums in autism spectrum disorders: A chart review study. Autism, 19(1), 102–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldwin, C. M., & Revenson, T. A. (1987). Does coping help? A re-examination of the relation between coping and mental health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 337–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K. A., Bowles, T. V., & Weber, L. L. (2013). Mothers’ and fathers’ stress associated with parenting a child with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Insights, 5, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altiere, M. J., & von Kluge, S. (2009). Family functioning and coping behaviors in parents of children with autism. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(1), 83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. M., & Elfert, H. (1989). Managing chronic illness in the family: Women as caretakers. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 14, 735–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aznar, A., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2013). Spanish parent-child emotion talk and their children’s understanding of emotion. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 670.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, A. E., Lane, A., Angley, M. T., & Young, R. L. (2008). The relationship between sensory processing patterns and behavioural responsiveness in autistic disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 867–875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. K., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2011). Longitudinal effects of adaptability on behavior problems and maternal depression in families of adolescents with autism. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(4), 601–609.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, M. (2010). Medical comorbidities in autism: Challenges to diagnosis and treatment. Neurotherapy, 7(3), 320–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beasley, M., Thompson, T., & Davidson, J. (2003). Resilience in responses to life stress: The effects of coping style and cognitive hardiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(1), 77–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). The diagnosis and management of the emotional disorders. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1970). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckman, P. J. (1991). Comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of the effect of young children with and without disabilities. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 95, 585–595.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjak, T. (2009). Comparative study on self-perceived health of parents of children with autism spectrum disorders and parents of non-disabled children in Croatia. Croatian Medical Journal, 50, 403–409.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P. R. (2006). The impact of child symptom severity on depressed mood among parents of children with ASD: The mediating role of stress proliferation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 685–695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P. R. (2014). Coping and psychological adjustment among mothers of children with ASD: An accelerated longitudinal study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 350–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P. R., & Karloff, K. L. (2009). Anger, stress proliferation, and depressed mood among parents of children with ASD: A longitudinal replication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(2), 350–362.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bitsika, V., & Sharpley, C. (2004). Stress, anxiety and depression among parents of children with ASD spectrum disorder. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 14, 151–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromley, J., Hare, D. J., Davison, K., & Emerson, E. (2004). Mothers supporting children with autistic spectrum disorders: Social support, mental health status, and satisfaction with services. Autism, 8, 409–423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., Korotitsch, W., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Psychometric properties of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) in clinical samples. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 35, 79–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Busch, E. C. (2009). Using acceptance and commitment therapy with parents of children with autism: The application of a theory. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 0622 (0971). University Dissertation Publishing.

  • Campbell-Sillsa, L., Cohanab, S. L., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 585–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Martínez-Pedraza, F. D. L., & Gray, S. A. O. (2009). Stability and individual change in depressive symptoms among mothers raising young children with ASD: Maternal and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1270–1280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, B., & McGoldrick, M. (Eds.). (1988). The changing family life cycle: A framework for family therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Gardner Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, W., Siu, O., Lu, J., Cooper, C. L., & Phillips, D. R. (2009). Work stress and depression: The direct and moderating effects of informal social support and coping. Stress and Health, 25, 431–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Civick, P. (2008). Maternal and paternal differences in parental stress levels and marital satisfaction levels in parents of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 0622 (0925). Umi Dissertation Publishing.

  • Clara, I. P., Cox, B. J., & Enns, M. W. (2001). Confirmatory factor analysis of the depression-anxiety-stress scales in depressed and anxious patients. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 61–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coakes, S. J. (2005). SPSS: Analysis without anguish: Version 12.0 for Windows. Queensland: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crane, L., Goddard, L., & Pring, L. (2009). Sensory processing in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 13(3), 215–228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research, 54(3), 266–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S. (2008). Parenting stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Associations with child characteristics. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1278–1291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DePape, A., & Lindsay, S. (2015). Parents’ experiences of caring for a child with autism spectrum disorder. Qualitative Health Research, 25(4), 569–583.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dieleman, L. M., Moyson, T., De Pauw, S. S. W., Prinzie, P., & Soenens, B. (2018). Parents’ need-related experiences and behaviors when raising a child with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 42, e26–e37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dinger, U., Barrett, M. S., Zimmermann, J., Schauenburg, H., Wright, A. G. C., Renner, F., … Barber, J. P. (2015). Interpersonal problems, dependency, and self-criticism in major depressive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 93–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, D. R., Kurtz, P. F., & Chin, M. D. (2008). A systematic review of challenging behaviors in children exposed prenatally to substances of abuse. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 29, 483–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dominick, K. C., Davis, N. O., Lainhart, J., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Folstein, S. (2007). Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 145–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duica, L., Talau, R., Nicoara, D., Dinca, L., Turcu, J., & Talau, G. (2012). “Stress-Anxiety-Coping” triad in medical students. Journal of Educational Sciences & Psychology, 2(2), 96–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, M. E., Burbine, T., Bowers, C. A., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. Community Mental Health Journal, 37(1), 39–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–176). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einam, M., & Cuskelly, M. (2002). Paid employment of mothers and fathers of an adult child with multiple disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46(2), 158–167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Essex, E. L., Seltzer, M. M., & Krauss, M. W. (1999). Differences in coping effectiveness and well-being among aging mothers and fathers of adults with mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 104, 545–563.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, A., Munson, J., Dawson, G., Koehler, E., Zhou, X., & Abbott, R. (2009). Parenting stress and psychological functioning among mothers of preschool children with autism and developmental delay. Autism, 13(4), 375–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, N. H., Norris, K., & Quinn, M. G. (2014). The factors predicting stress, anxiety and depression in the parents of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3185–3203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. J., & Dube, L. (2005). Gender differences in responses to emotional advertising: A social desirability perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 850–858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, K. (2009). A cross-sectional study of patterns of renewed stress among parents of children with autism. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 0621 (0190).

  • Fivush, R., Brotman, M. A., Buckner, J. P., & Goodman, S. H. (2000). Gender differences in parent-child emotion narratives. Sex Roles, 42, 244–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, S., Phillips, A. C., Oliver, C., & Carroll, D. (2008). Predictors of psychological morbidity in parents of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 33(10), 1129–1136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George, A., Vickers, M. H., Wilkes, L., & Barton, B. (2008). Working and caring for a child with chronic illness: Challenges in maintaining employment. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 20, 165–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glidden, L. M., Billings, F. J., & Jobe, B. M. (2006). Personality, coping style and well-being of parents rearing children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 949–962.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D. E. (2003). Gender and coping: The parents of children with high functioning autism. Social Science and Medicine, 56, 631–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D. E., & Holden, W. J. (1992). Psycho-social well-being among the parents of children with autism. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 18, 83–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, G. M., Hastings, R. P., Nash, S., & Hill, C. (2010). Using matched groups to explore child behavior problems and maternal well-being in children with down syndrome and autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(5), 610–619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grzywacz, J. G., & Bass, B. L. (2003). Work, family, and mental health: Testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 248–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P. (2003). Brief report: Behavioral adjustments of siblings of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(1), 99–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., & Johnson, E. (2001). Stress in UK families conducting intensive home-based behavioral intervention for their young child with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 327–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Brown, T., Ward, N. J., Espinosa, F. D., & Remington, B. (2005a). Coping strategies in mothers and fathers of preschool and school-age children with autism. Autism, 9, 377–391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Ward, N. J., Espinosa, D., F., & Remington, B. (2005b). Systems analysis of stress and positive perceptions in mothers and fathers of preschool children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 635–644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(3), 629–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herring, S., Gray, K., Taffe, J., Tonge, B., Sweeney, D., & Einfeld, S. (2006). Behavior and emotional problems in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders and developmental delay: Associations with parental mental health and family functioning. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 874–882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hock, R. M., Timm, T. M., & Ramisch, J. L. (2012). Parenting children with autism spectrum disorders: A crucible for couple relationships. Child & Family Social Work, 17(4), 406–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, C. D., Sweeney, D. P., Hodge, D., Lopez-Wagner, M. C., & Looney, L. (2009). Parenting stress and closeness: Mothers of typically developing children and mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(3), 178–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holden, B., & Gitlesen, J. P. (2006). A total population study of challenging behavior in the country of Hedmark, Norway: Prevalence, and risk markers. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 27, 456–465.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, C., Yen, H., Tseng, M., Tung, L., Chen, Y., & Chen, K. (2014). Impacts of autistic behaviors, emotional and behavioral problems on parenting stress in caregivers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 629–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ilias, K., Cornish, K., Kummar, A. S., Sang-Ah Park, M., & Golden, K. J. (2018). Parenting stress and resilience in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Southeast Asia: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 280.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2011). The relationship between the broader autism phenotype, child severity, and stress and depression in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorder, 5, 337–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jose, P. E. (2013). ModGraph-I: A programme to compute cell means for the graphical display of moderational analyses: The internet version. Version 3.0. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://pavlov.psyc.vuw.ac.nz/paul-jose/modgraph/.

  • Karst, J. S., & Van Hecke, A. V. (2012). Parent and family impact of autism spectrum disorders: A review and proposed model for intervention evaluation. Clinical Child and Family Psychological Review, 15, 247–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kayfitz, A. D., Gragg, M. N., & Orr, R. (2010). Positive experiences of mothers and fathers of children with autism. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(4), 337–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kern, J. K., Trivedi, M. H., Garver, C. R., Grannemann, B. D., Andrews, A. A., Savla, J. S., & Schroeder, J. L. (2006). The pattern of sensory processing abnormalities in autism. Autism, 10(5), 480–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konstantareas, M. M., & Papageorgiou, V. (2006). Effects of temperament, symptom severity and level of functioning on maternal stress in Greek children and youth with ASD. Autism, 10, 593–607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kornhaber, M., & Marcos, H. (2000). Young children’s communication with mothers and fathers: Functions and contents. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 187–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koydemir-Özden, S., & Tosun, Ü. (2010). A qualitative approach to understanding Turkish mothers of children with autism: Implications for counselling. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 20(1), 55–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurtz, P. F., Chin, M. D., Rush, K. S., & Dixon, D. R. (2008). Treatment of challenging behavior exhibited by children with prenatal drug exposure. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 29, 582–609.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuusikko-Gauffun, S., Pollock-Wurman, R., Mattila, M. L., Jussila, K., Ebeling, H., Pauls, D., & Moilanen, I. (2013). Social anxiety in parents of high-functioning children with autism and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Development Disorders, 43(3), 521–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, K. Y., Luk, E. S., Leung, P. W., Wong, A. S., Law, L., & Ho, K. (2010). Validation of the Chinese version of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire in Hong Kong. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45, 1179–1186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, W. W., Goh, T. J., Oei, T. P. S., & Sung, M. (2015). Coping and well-being in parents of children with autism spectrums disorders (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45(8), 2582–2983.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (2000). The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage & Family Review, 29(2–3), 23–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamminen, L. (2008). Family functioning and social support in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 0519(0102).

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leandro, P. G., & Castillo, M. (2010). Coping with stress and its relationship with personality dimensions, anxiety, and depression. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 1562–1573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behavior problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 172–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, G. K. (2009). Parents of children with high functioning autism: How well do they cope and adjust? Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 21, 93–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, L. (2015). Coping strategies, caregiving burden, and depressive symptoms of Taiwanese mothers of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 15–16, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. K., Chien, Y. L., Shang, C. Y., Lin, C. H., Liu, Y. C. & Gau, S., S., F (2013). Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of strength and difficulties questionnaire. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(6), 720–730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovell, B., Moss, M., & Wetherell, M. A. (2015a). The psychophysiological and health corollaries of child problem behaviours in caregivers of children with autism and ADHD. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(2), 150–157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luong, J., Yoder, M. K., & Canham, D. (2009). Southeast asian parents raising a child with autism: A qualitative investigation of coping styles. Journal of School Nursing, 25(3), 222–229.

  • Mandell, D. S., & Salzer, M. S. (2007). Who joins support groups among parents of children with autism? The International Journal of Research and Practice, 11(2), 111–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., & Cervantes, P. E. (2014). Commonly studied comorbid psychopathologies among persons with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(5), 952–962.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., Mahan, S., Hess, J. A., Fodstad, J. C., & Neal, D. (2010). Progression of challenging behaviors in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders as measured by the autism spectrum disorder-problem behaviors for children (ASD-PBC). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 400–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, J. (1991). Fathers of children with special needs: New horizons. Bethesda: Association for the Care of Children’s Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeever, P. T. (1981). Fathering the chronically ill child. American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 6, 124–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Micali, N., Chakrabarti, S., & Fombonne, E. (2004). The broad autism phenotype: Findings from an epidemiological survey. Autism, 8, 21–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports. (2009). Singapore fatherhood public perception survey 2009—key findings. Retrieved from https://dadsforlifesg.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/singapore_fatherhood_public_perception_survey_2009.pdf.

  • Ministry of Health, Singapore (MOH). (2010). Singapore burden of disease study 2010. Retrieved from https://www.moh.gov.sg/content/dam/moh_web/Publications/Reports/2014/Singapore%20Burden%20of%20Disease%20Study%202010%20Report_v3.pdf.

  • Ministry of Social and Family Development. (2015). Survey on social attitudes of Singaporeans. In M. Mathews & P. T. Straughan (Eds.), Overview of Singapore families [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved November 17, 2018, from https://www.msf.gov.sg/SSPC/Documents/SSPC%20-%20Overview%20of%20Singapore%20Families-%20June2nd.pdf.

  • Moen, P., & Roehling, P. (2005). The career mystique: Cracks in the American dream. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morano, C. L. (2003). Appraisal and coping: Moderators or mediators of stress in Alzheimer’s disease caregivers? Social Work Research, 27(2), 116–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moriwaki, A., & Kamio, Y. (2014). Normative data and psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire among Japanese school-aged children. Child and Adolescents Psychiatry and Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-8-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, L. A. (2012). Testing respite effect of work on stress among mothers of children with special needs. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33, 24–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, G. H., Beadle-Brown, J., Wing, L., Gould, J., Shah, A., & Holmes, N. (2005). Chronicity of challenging behaviors in people with severe intellectual disabilities and/or autism: A total population sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 405–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, B. J., Mackintosh, V. H., & Goin-Kochel, R. P. (2009). “my greatest joy and my greatest heart ache:” Parents’ own words on how having a child in the autism spectrum has affected their lives and their families’ lives. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3(3), 670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nealy, C. E., O’Hare, L., Powers, J. D., & Swick, D. C. (2012). The impact of autism spectrum disorders on the family: A qualitative study of mother’s perspectives. Journal of Family Social Work, 15, 187–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholas, J. S., Charles, J. M., Carpenter, L. A., King, L. B., Jenner, W., & Spratt, E. G. (2008). Prevalence and characteristics of children with autism-spectrum disorders. Annals of Epidemiology, 18(2), 130–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochiai, E., Mari, Y., Yasulo, M., Zhou, W., Setsuko, O., Nachiko, K., … Hong, S. O. (2008). Gender roles and childcare networks in East and Southeast Asian societies. In E. Ochiai & B. Molony (Eds.), Asia’s New Mothers: Crafting gender roles and childcare networks in East and Southeast Asian Societies (pp. 31–70). Folkestone: Global Oriental.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Oei, T. P., Sawang, S., Goh, Y. W., & Mukhtar, F. (2013). Using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21) across cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 48(6), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, M. B., & Hwang, C. P. (2001). Depression in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45(6), 535–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pakenham, K. I. (2005). Benefit finding in multiple sclerosis and associations with positive and negative outcomes. Health Psychology, 24(2), 123–132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pallant, J. (2010). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS. Maidenhead: Open University Press: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parish, S. L. (2006). Juggling and struggling: A preliminary work-life study of mothers with adolescents who have developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation, 44, 393–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Folkman, S., & Bostrom, A. (2001). Appraisals of controllability and coping in caregivers and HIV + men: Testing the goodness-of-fit hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 481–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters-Scheffer, N., Didden, R., & Korzilius, H. (2012). Maternal stress predicted by characteristics of children with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(2), 696–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plant, K. M., & Sanders, M. R. (2007). Reducing problem behaviour during care-giving in families of preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28(4), 362–385.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J., & Masciadrelli, B. (2004). Paternal involvement in U.S. residential fathers: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 222–271). New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pruchno, R. A., & Resch, N. L. (1989). Husbands and wives as caregivers: Antecedents of depression and burden. The Gerontologist, 29(2), 159–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quek, K., & Knudson-Martin, C. (2008). Reshaping marital power: How dual career newlywed couples create equality in Singapore. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25, 513–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quek, K. M. (2014). The evolving challenges of modern-day parenthood in Singapore. In H. Selin (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-western cultures (pp. 145–161). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter, K., Classen, C. C., Roscoe, J. A., Morrow, G. R., Kirshner, J. J., Rosenbluth, R., … Spiegel, D. (2006). Association of coping style, pain, age and depression with fatigue in women with primary breast cancer. Psycho-oncology, 15(9), 772–779.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rimland, B., & Edelson, S. M. (1999). The Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC). San Diego: Autism Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rimland, B., & Edelson, S. M. (2005). Studies confirm validity of ATEC report. Retrieved from https://www.autism.com/ind_atec_report.

  • Safe, A., Joosten, A., & Molineux, M. (2012). The experiences of mothers of children with autism: Managing multiple roles. Journal of Intellectual Developmental Disabilities, 37(4), 294–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson, A. C., Phillips, J. M., Parker, K. J., Shah, S., Gross, J. J., & Hardan, A. Y. (2014). Emotion dysregulation and the core features of autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1766–1772.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpley, C. F., & Yardley, P. (1999). The relationship between cognitive hardiness, explanatory style and depression-happiness in post-retirement men and women. Australian Psychologist, 34, 198–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, D., Landon, J., Taylor, S., & Goedeke, S. (2018). Coping and care-related stress in parents of a child with autism spectrum disorder. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 31(3), 277–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, R. W. (1995). Gender, multiple roles, role meaning, and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(June), 182–194.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 921–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, G. (2006). Meta-analysis of comparative studies of depression in mothers of children with and without developmental disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111, 155–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Seltzer, M. M., Tager-Flusberg, H., Greenberg, J. S., & Carter, A. S. (2008). A comparative analysis of well-being and coping among mothers of toddlers and mothers of adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 876–889.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strachan, W. (2005). Fathers of children with educational disabilities: The role of stress in life satisfaction (Electronic theses, treatises and dissertations) Paper 1548. Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/islandora/object/fsu:176058/datastream/PDF/view.

  • Sturman, E. D., & Mongrain, M. (2005). Self-criticism and depression: An evolutionary perspective. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 505–519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, A. (2002). Gender differences in coping strategies of parents of children with Down syndrome. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 8(2), 67–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, D. J. (1989). Coping resources and adaptation. Main or buffering effects? Australian Journal of Psychology, 41(2), 159–173.

  • Tiedje, L. B., Wortman, C. B., Downey, G., Emmons, C., Biernat, M., & Lang, E. (1990). Women with multiple roles: Role-compatibility perceptions, satisfaction, and mental health. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52, 63–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trute, B. (1995). Gender differences in the psychological adjustments of parents of young, developmentally disabled children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(7), 1225–1242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twoy, R., Connolly, P. M., & Novak, J. M. (2007). Coping strategies used by parents of children with autism. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 19, 251–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Esch, L., O’nions, L., Hannes, K., Ceulemans, E., Van Leeuwen, K., & Noens, I. (2018). Parenting children with autism spectrum disorder before and after the transition to secondary school. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2, 179–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Steijn, D. J., Oerlemans, A. M., van Aken, M. A. G., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2014). The reciprocal relationship of ASD, ADHD, depressive symptoms and stress in parents of children with ASD and/or ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1064–1076.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, P., Michaels, C., & Day, M. (2011). Stresses and coping strategies of Chinese families with children with autism and other developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(6), 783–795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, R. B., Walford, W. A., & Espnes, G. A. (2000). Coping styles and psychological health in adolescents and young adults: A comparison of moderator and main effects models. Australian Journal of Psychology, 52, 155–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, S. (2008). What is fatherhood? Searching for the reflexive father. Sociology, 42(3), 487–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodgate, R. L., Ateah, C., & Secco, L. (2008). Living in a world of our own: The experience of parents who have a child with autism. Qualitative Health Research, 18(8), 1075–1083.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zaman, W., & Fivush, R. (2013). Gender differences in elaborative parent-child emotion and play narratives. Sex Roles, 68, 591–604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the participants of the study who had generously devoted their time to take part in this research. We would also like to thank the staff from the various special education schools and intervention centres for their help and support for this study.

Funding

The study is supported by James Cook University Postgraduate research fund.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. James Cook University, 149 Sims Drive, Singapore, 387380, Singapore

    Karen Qian Ping Ang

  2. National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore, 637616, Singapore

    Pek Ru Loh

Authors
  1. Karen Qian Ping Ang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pek Ru Loh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

KQPA and PRL contributed conceptually to the design of study and were involved in the analysis and interpretation of the data. KQPA collected the data for the study. Both authors were involved in discussing the findings, and all stages in the manuscript production.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Karen Qian Ping Ang.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ang, K.Q.P., Loh, P.R. Mental Health and Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Singapore: An Examination of Gender Role in Caring. J Autism Dev Disord 49, 2129–2145 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03900-w

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03900-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation