Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Embedded Figures Test Performance in the Broader Autism Phenotype: A Meta-analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

People with autism show superior performance to controls on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT). However, studies examining the relationship between autistic-like traits and EFT performance in neurotypical individuals have yielded inconsistent findings. To examine the inconsistency, a meta-analysis was conducted of studies that (a) compared high and low Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) groups, and (b) treated AQ as a continuous variable. Outcomes are consistent with superior visual search forming part of the broader autism phenotype, but in existing literature, this is evident only when comparing extreme groups. Reanalysis of data from previous studies suggests findings are unlikely to be driven by a small number of high scorers. Monte Carlo simulations are used to illustrate the effect of methodological differences on results.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A comprehensive discussion of all documented strengths and weaknesses on visual tasks in autism and the theories that have been put forward to explain this pattern of performance is beyond the scope of this paper. Interested readers are referred to the following review paper for a review: Simmons et al. (2009).

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis. The in-text citations to studies selected for meta-analysis are not preceded by asterisks

  • Allison, T., Puce, A., & McCarthy, G. (2000). Social perception from visual cues: Role of the STS region. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(7), 267–278. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01501-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Almeida, R. A., Dickinson, J. E., Maybery, M. T., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2010a). A new step towards understanding Embedded Figures Test performance in the autism spectrum: The radial frequency search task. Neuropsychologia, 48(2), 374–381. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Almeida, R. A., Dickinson, J. E., Maybery, M. T., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2010b). Visual search performance in the autism spectrum II: The radial frequency search task with additional segmentation cues. Neuropsychologia, 48(14), 4117–4124. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Almeida, R. A., Dickinson, J. E., Maybery, M. T., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2013). Visual search targeting either local or global perceptual processes differs as a function of autistic-like traits in the typically developing population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(6), 1272–1286. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1669-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Almeida, R. A., Dickinson, J. E., Maybery, M. T., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2014). Enhanced global integration of closed contours in individuals with high levels of autistic-like traits. Vision Research, 103, 109–115. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2014.08.015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013a). DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013b). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Association.

  • Bailey, A., Le Couteura, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E., & Rutter, M. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25(1), 63–77. doi:10.1017/S0033291700028099.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Short, L., Mead, G., & Smith, A. (1998). Does Autism occur more often in families of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians? Autism, 2(3), 296–301. doi:10.1177/1362361398023008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17. doi:10.1007/0-306-47679-7_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stott, C., Bolton, P., & Goodyer, I. (1997). Is there a link between engineering and autism? Autism-London, 1, 101–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Sasson, A., Hen, L., Fluss, R., Cermak, S. A., Engel-Yeger, B., & Gal, E. (2008). A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(1), 1–11. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bieri, J. (1960). Parental identification, acceptance of authority, and within-sex differences in cognitive behavior. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60(1), 76. doi:10.1037/h0044591.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: A study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1431–1436. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00325.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boddaert, N., Chabane, N., Gervais, H., Good, C. D., Bourgeois, M., Plumet, M. H., & Zilbovicius, M. (2004). Superior temporal sulcus anatomical abnormalities in childhood autism: A voxel-based morphometry MRI study. NeuroImage, 23(1), 364–369. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2005). Comprehensive meta-analysis version 2. Englewood, NJ: Biostat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brock, J., Xu, J. Y., & Brooks, K. R. (2011). Individual differences in visual search: Relationship to autistic traits, discrimination thresholds, and speed of processing. Perception-London, 40(6), 739. doi:10.1068/p6953.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, D. F., & Coward, R. T. (1974). Sex differences in the solution of achromatic and chromatic embedded figures. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39(3), 1121–1122. doi:10.2466/pms.1974.39.3.1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Carroll, J. M., & Chiew, K. Y. (2006). Sex and discipline differences in empathising, systemising and autistic symptomatology: Evidence from a student population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(7), 949–957. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0127-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Carton, A. M., & Smith, A. D. (2014). Assessing the relationship between eating disorder psychopathology and autistic traits in a non-clinical adult population. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 19(3), 285–293. doi:10.1007/s40519-013-0086-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connor, J. M., Serbin, L. A., & Schackman, M. (1977). Sex differences in children’s response to training on a visual-spatial test. Developmental Psychology, 13(3), 293. doi:10.2307/1128588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2007). Social responsiveness scale (SRS). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

  • Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: A twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524–530. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of subthreshold autistic traits in the general population. Biological Psychiatry, 57(6), 655–660. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Viva, M. M., Igliozzi, R., Tancredi, R., & Brizzolara, D. (2006). Spatial and motion integration in children with autism. Vision Research, 46(8), 1242–1252. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2005.10.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diascro, M. N., & Brody, N. (1993). Serial versus parallel processing in visual search tasks and IQ. Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 243–245. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90195-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7129.469.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Sinclair, L., Kubu, C. S., Law, P., Rezai, A., & Eng, C. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders as a qualitatively distinct category from typical behavior in a large, clinically ascertained sample. Assessment, 17(3), 308–320. doi:10.1177/1073191109356534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Speer, L., Embacher, R., Law, P., Constantino, J., & Eng, C. (2012). Validation of proposed DSM-5 criteria for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(1), 28–40.e23. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.09.021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gebauer, L., Foster, N. E. V., Vuust, P., & Hyde, K. L. (2015). Is there a bit of autism in all of us? Autism spectrum traits are related to cortical thickness differences in both autism and typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 13–14, 8–14. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.12.013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, A. G., & Chance, J. E. (1965). Effects of practice on sex-related differences in performance on Embedded Figures. Psychonomic Science, 3(1), 361–362. doi:10.3758/bf03343180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, B. L., & Plaisted-Grant, K. C. (2013). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient and visual search: Shallow and deep autistic endophenotypes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1951-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Grinter, E. J., Maybery, M. T., Van Beek, P. L., Pellicano, E., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2009a). Global visual processing and self-rated autistic-like traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(9), 1278–1290. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0740-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Grinter, E. J., Van Beek, P. L., Maybery, M. T., & Badcock, D. R. (2009b). Brief report: Visuospatial analysis and self-rated autistic-like traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(4), 670–677. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0658-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horlin, C., Albrecht, M. A., Falkmer, M., Leung, D., Ordqvist, A., Tan, T., et al. (2014). Visual search strategies of children with and without autism spectrum disorders during an embedded figures task. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(5), 463–471. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.01.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, R. N. (1978). Sex differences in field dependence: Effects of unlimited time on group embedded figures test performance (Vol. 47, p. 1246). USA: Perceptual & Motor Skills.

  • Hurley, R. S., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0299-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Immergluck, L., & Mearini, M. C. (1969). Age and sex differences in responses to Embedded Figures and reversible figures. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 8(2), 210–221. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(69)90096-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrold, C., Gilchrist, I. D., & Bender, A. (2005). Embedded figures detection in autism and typical development: Preliminary evidence of a double dissociation in relationships with visual search. Developmental Science, 8(4), 344–351. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00422.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 527–534. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01539.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanne, S. M., Wang, J., & Christ, S. E. (2012). The Subthreshold Autism Trait Questionnaire (SATQ): Development of a brief self-report measure of subthreshold autism traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(5), 769–780. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1308-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koldewyn, K., Whitney, D., & Rivera, S. M. (2010). The psychophysics of visual motion and global form processing in autism. Brain, 133(2), 599–610. doi:10.1093/brain/awp272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Kunihira, Y., Senju, A., Dairoku, H., Wakabayashi, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2006). ‘Autistic’traits in non-autistic Japanese populations: Relationships with personality traits and cognitive ability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(4), 553–566. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0094-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lainhart, J. E., Ozonoff, S., Coon, H., Krasny, L., Dinh, E., Nice, J., & McMahon, W. (2002). Autism, regression, and the broader autism phenotype. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 113(3), 231–237. doi:10.1002/ajmg.10615.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leekam, S. R., Nieto, C., Libby, S. J., Wing, L., & Gould, J. (2007). Describing the sensory abnormalities in children and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 894–910. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0218-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockyer, L., & Rutter, M. (1970). A five-to fifteen-year follow-up study of infantile psychosis: IV. Patterns of cognitive ability. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 152–163. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1970.tb00654.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manjaly, Z. M., Bruning, N., Neufang, S., Stephan, K. E., Brieber, S., Marshall, J. C., & Fink, G. R. (2007). Neurophysiological correlates of relatively enhanced local visual search in autistic adolescents. NeuroImage, 35(1), 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.11.036.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, E., Dunn, S. A., Freeth, M., & Rosas-Martinez, L. (2013). Visual search performance is predicted by the degree to which selective attention to features modulates the ERP between 350 and 600ms. Neuropsychologia, 51(6), 1109–1118. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.03.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, E., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., Campbell, R., Jeffries, H., & Plaisted, K. (2002). High motion coherence thresholds in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(2), 255–263. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, E., White, S., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., & Ramus, F. (2006). Motion and form coherence detection in autistic spectrum disorder: Relationship to motor control and 2: 4 digit ratio. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(2), 225–237. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0052-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, B., Maybery, M., & Durkin, K. (2003). Weak central coherence, poor joint attention, and low verbal ability: Independent deficits in early autism. Developmental Psychology, 39(4), 646. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.646.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muth, A., Hönekopp, J., & Falter, C. (2014). Visuo-spatial performance in autism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3245–3263. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2188-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nishiyama, T., Suzuki, M., Adachi, K., Sumi, S., Okada, K., Kishino, H., et al. (2014). Comprehensive comparison of self-administered questionnaires for measuring quantitative autistic traits in adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 993–1007. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-2020-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Riordan, M. A. (2004). Superior visual search in adults with autism. Autism, 8(3), 229–248. doi:10.1177/1362361304045219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Riordan, M. A., Plaisted, K. C., Driver, J., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). Superior visual search in autism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27(3), 719. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.27.3.719.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, D. P., & Sonenklar, N. A. (2007). Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17(3), 348–355. doi:10.1089/cap.2006.17303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pellicano, E., Gibson, L., Maybery, M., Durkin, K., & Badcock, D. R. (2005). Abnormal global processing along the dorsal visual pathway in autism: A possible mechanism for weak visuospatial coherence? Neuropsychologia, 43(7), 1044–1053. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.10.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997). Broader autism phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 185–190. doi:10.1176/ajp.154.2.185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plaisted, K., O’Riordan, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1998). Enhanced visual search for a conjunctive target in autism: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39(5), 777. doi:10.1017/s0021963098002613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., MacCallum, R. C., & Nicewander, W. A. (2005). Use of the extreme groups approach: A critical reexamination and new recommendations. Psychological Methods, 10(2), 178. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.10.2.178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, A. E., & Simmons, D. R. (2013). The relationship between sensory sensitivity and autistic traits in the general population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 775–784. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1608-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1995). Writing meta-analytic reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 118(2), 183. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.118.2.183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Russell-Smith, S. N., Maybery, M. T., & Bayliss, D. M. (2010). Are the autism and positive schizotypy spectra diametrically opposed in local versus global processing? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(8), 968–977. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0945-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Smith, P., Watson, P., Auyeung, B., Ring, H., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). Measuring autistic traits in the general population: A systematic review of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a nonclinical population sample of 6,900 typical adult males and females. Molecular Autism, 6(1), 2. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-6-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Saygin, A. P., Cook, J., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2010). Unaffected perceptual thresholds for biological and non-biological form-from-motion perception in autism spectrum conditions. PLoS One, 5(10), e13491.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M. P. L. J. S. (2004). Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism. Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10(4), 234–247. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An islet of ability in autistic children: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24(4), 613–620. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00137.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the block design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(8), 1351–1364. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02095.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. R., Robertson, A. E., McKay, L. S., Toal, E., McAleer, P., & Pollick, F. E. (2009). Vision in autism spectrum disorders. Vision Research, 49(22), 2705–2739. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.08.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skuse, D. H., Mandy, W., Steer, C., Miller, L. L., Goodman, R., Lawrence, K., & Golding, J. (2009). Social communication competence and functional adaptation in a general population of children: Preliminary evidence for sex-by-verbal IQ differential risk. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(2), 128–137. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819176b8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, J. V., & O’Brien, J. M. D. (2006). Visual form-processing deficits in autism. Perception, 35, 1047–1055. doi:10.1068/p5328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M. E., Griffiths, T. D., & Grube, M. (2015). Autistic traits and enhanced perceptual representation of pitch and time. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2517-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M. E., Watson, J., Allcock, A.-J., & Yaqoob, T. (2009). Autistic traits predict performance on the block design. Autism, 13(2), 133–142. doi:10.1177/1362361308098515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suda, M., Takei, Y., Aoyama, Y., Narita, K., Sakurai, N., Fukuda, M., & Mikuni, M. (2011). Autistic traits and brain activation during face-to-face conversations in typically developed adults. PLoS One, 6(5), 1–8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, A., & Crewther, D. P. (2010). Magnocellular visual evoked potential delay with high autism spectrum quotient yields a neural mechanism for altered perception. Brain, 133(7), 2089–2097. doi:10.1093/brain/awq122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomchek, S. D., & Dunn, W. (2007). Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the short sensory profile. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(2), 190–200. doi:10.5014/ajot.61.2.190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Valla, J. M., Ganzel, B. L., Yoder, K. J., Chen, G. M., Lyman, L. T., Sidari, A. P., & Wong, S. K. (2010). More than maths and mindreading: Sex differences in empathizing/systemizing covariance. Autism Research, 3(4), 174–184. doi:10.1002/aur.143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbroucke, M. W., Scholte, H. S., van Engeland, H., Lamme, V. A., & Kemner, C. (2008). Coherent versus component motion perception in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 941–949. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0467-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venter, A., Lord, C., & Schopler, E. (1992). A follow-up study of high-functioning autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(3), 489–597. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb00887.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von dem Hagen, E. A. H., Nummenmaa, L., Yu, R., Engell, A. D., Ewbank, M. P., & Calder, A. J. (2011). Autism Spectrum traits in the typical population predict structure and function in the posterior superior temporal sulcus. Cerebral Cortex, 21(3), 493–500. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 250. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wheelwright, S., Auyeung, B., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Defining the broader, medium and narrow autism pheotype among parents using the autism spectrum quotient (AQ). Molecular Autism, 1, 1. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-1-10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, S., & Saldaña, D. (2011). Performance of children with autism on the Embedded Figures Test: A closer look at a popular task. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(11), 1565–1572. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1182-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Witkin, H. A. (1950). Individual differences in ease of perception of embedded figures. Journal of Personality, 19(1), 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1950.tb01084.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witkin, H. A. (1971). A manual for the embedded figures tests. Consulting Psychologists Press.

  • Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 331–335. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeki, S., Watson, J. D. G., Lueck, C. J., Friston, K. J., Kennard, C., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991). A direct demonstration of functional specialisaton in human visual cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 11(3), 641–649.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Renita A. Almeida, J. Edwin Dickinson, Johanna C. Badcock and David R. Badcock for allowing us to reanalyse data from work they completed with author M.T.M.

Funding

This research was partially supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Project Grant to M. Maybery and A. Whitehouse (DP120104713).

Author Contributions

M.T.M. conceived of the study and M.T.M., S.J.C., M.O. and R.D.L. participated in its design and coordination. R.D.L. and M.O. conducted the literature search and R.D.L., M.O. and S.J.C. reviewed articles for inclusion in the meta-analysis. M.O. conducted the meta-analysis. S.J.C. conducted the reanalysis of data from previous studies. P.D.D. provided expertise regarding extreme groups studies and Monte Carlo analysis, and wrote the software to conduct the Monte Carlo simulations. M.T.M. ran the Monte Carlo simulations using this software. S.J.C., M.O. and M.T.M. were involved in interpretation of the data. S.J.C. and M.O. are joint first authors and wrote the manuscript. S.J.C. substantially wrote the introduction, discussion and results of the reanalysis of previous data and Monte Carlo simulations, while M.O. substantially wrote the methods and results of the meta-analysis, though both authors contributed to all sections of the manuscript. M.T.M. reviewed numerous drafts of the manuscript and gave feedback on these drafts. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. School of Psychology (M304), University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia

      Serena J. Cribb, Michelle Olaithe, Renata Di Lorenzo, Patrick D. Dunlop & Murray T. Maybery

    Authors
    1. Serena J. Cribb
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Michelle Olaithe
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Renata Di Lorenzo
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    4. Patrick D. Dunlop
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    5. Murray T. Maybery
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Serena J. Cribb.

    Ethics declarations

    Conflict of interest

    All authors declare that they do not have a financial relationship with any commercial entity that has a financial interest in this manuscript and do not have any conflicts of interest.

    Ethical Approval

    This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

    Additional information

    Serena J. Cribb and Michelle Olaithe have contributed equally to this work.

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    About this article

    Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

    Cite this article

    Cribb, S.J., Olaithe, M., Di Lorenzo, R. et al. Embedded Figures Test Performance in the Broader Autism Phenotype: A Meta-analysis. J Autism Dev Disord 46, 2924–2939 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2832-3

    Download citation

    • Published:

    • Issue Date:

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2832-3

    Keywords

    Search

    Navigation