Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Metacognitive Awareness of Facial Affect in Higher-Functioning Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Higher-functioning participants with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD) viewed a series of face stimuli, made decisions regarding the affect of each face, and indicated their confidence in each decision. Confidence significantly predicted accuracy across all participants, but this relation was stronger for participants with typical development than participants with ASD. In the hierarchical linear modeling analysis, there were no differences in face processing accuracy between participants with and without ASD, but participants with ASD were more confident in their decisions. These results suggest that individuals with ASD have metacognitive impairments and are overconfident in face processing. Additionally, greater metacognitive awareness was predictive of better face processing accuracy, suggesting that metacognition may be a pivotal skill to teach in interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. When deemed appropriate by the experimenter (e.g., participant had substantial attention difficulties), the experimenter controlled the computer mouse and paused the face stimulus presentation when requested by the participant.

  2. Although number of face segments revealed did not have a significant or marginally significant effect in Model 1, it was retained in the model due to its prior marginal significance in the model-building process.

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001). The “reading the mind in the eyes” test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2), 241–251. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00715.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Jolliffe, T. (1997). Is there a “language of the eyes”? Evidence from normal adults, and adults with autism or asperger syndrome. Visual Cognition, 4(3), 311–331. doi:10.1080/713756761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batty, M., Meaux, E., Wittemeyer, K., Rogé, B., & Taylor, M. J. (2011). Early processing of emotional faces in children with autism: An event-related potential study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(4), 430–444. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berument, S. K., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Pickles, A., & Bailey, A. (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: Diagnostic validity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 444–451. doi:10.1192/bjp.175.5.444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blais, C., Roy, C., Fiset, D., Arguin, M., & Gosselin, F. (2012). The eyes are not the window to basic emotions. Neuropsychologia, 50(12), 2830–2838. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.08.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castelli, F. (2005). Understanding emotions from standardized facial expressions in autism and normal development. Autism, 9(4), 428–449. doi:10.1177/1362361305056082.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Celani, G., Battacchi, M. W., & Arcidiacono, L. (1999). The understanding of the emotional meaning of facial expressions in people with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(1), 57–66. doi:10.1023/A:1025970600181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., & McPartland, J. (2005). Understanding the nature of face processing impairment in autism: Insights from behavioral and electrophysiological studies. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(3), 403–424. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2703_6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2012). Overconfidence produces underachievement: Inaccurate self evaluations undermine students’ learning and retention. Learning and Instruction, 22(4), 271–280. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.08.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., Wingert, H. D., Ho, H. H., & Mickelson, E. R. (2006). Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorders with the Social Communication Questionnaire. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(Suppl2), S95–S103. doi:10.1097/00004703-200604002-00007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, S., Gillberg, C., & Wing, L. (1999). A screening questionnaire for asperger syndrome and other high-functioning autism spectrum disorders in school age children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(2), 129–141. doi:10.1023/A:1023040610384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K., & Tofighi, D. (2007). Centering predictor variables in cross-sectional multilevel models: A new look at an old issue. Psychological Methods, 12(2), 121–138. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.12.2.121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falck-Ytter, T. (2008). Face inversion effects in autism: A combined looking time and pupillometric study. Autism Research, 1(5), 297–306. doi:10.1002/aur.45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrant, A., Blades, M., & Boucher, J. (1999a). Recall readiness in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(5), 359–366. doi:10.1023/A:1023074726548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrant, A., Boucher, J., & Blades, M. (1999b). Metamemory in children with autism. Child Development, 70(1), 107–131. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golan, O., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Systemizing empathy: Teaching adults with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism to recognize complex emotions using interactive multimedia. Development and Psychopathology, 18(2), 591–617. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grainger, C., Williams, D. M., & Lind, S. E. (2014). Metacognition, metamemory, and mindreading in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(3), 650–659. doi:10.1037/a0036531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, C. A., Øgaard, T., & Marnburg, E. (2009). Exploring qualitative differences in knowledge sources: A study of hierarchical effects of judgmental confidence and accuracy performance. International Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(4), 1–25. doi:10.4018/jkm.2009062901.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, R. K., & Hoffman, J. M. (2014). Adolescents with high-functioning autism: An investigation of comorbid anxiety and depression. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 7(3), 246–263. doi:10.1080/19315864.2013.843223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harms, M. B., Martin, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2010). Facial emotion recognition in autism spectrum disorders: A review of behavioral and neuroimaging studies. Neuropsychology Review, 20(3), 290–322. doi:10.1007/s11065-010-9138-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hileman, C. M., Henderson, H., Mundy, P., Newell, L., & Jaime, M. (2011). Developmental and individual differences on the P1 and N170 ERP components in children with and without autism. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(2), 214–236. doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.549870.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, R. P., Ouston, J., & Lee, A. (1988). What’s in a face? The case of autism. British Journal of Psychology, 79(4), 441–453. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1988.tb02745.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurtig, T., Kuusikko, S., Mattila, M., Haapsamo, H., Ebeling, H., Jussila, K., et al. (2009). Multi-informant reports of psychiatric symptoms among high-functioning adolescents with Asperger syndrome or autism. Autism, 13(6), 583–598. doi:10.1177/1362361309335719.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, J. E., & Paris, S. G. (1987). Children’s metacognition about reading: Issues in definition, measurement, and instruction. Educational Psychologist, 22(3–4), 255–278. doi:10.1080/00461520.1987.9653052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. R. G., Pickles, A., Falcaro, M., Marsden, A. J. S., Happé, F., Scott, S. K., et al. (2011). A multimodal approach to emotion recognition ability in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(3), 275–285. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02328.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, K. J., & Metcalfe, J. (2011). Metacognition of emotional face recognition. Emotion, 11(4), 896–906. doi:10.1037/a0023746.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., Volkmar, F., & Cohen, D. (2002). Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(9), 809–816. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.9.809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuusikko, S., Pollock-Wurman, R., Jussila, K., Carter, A. S., Mattila, M., Ebeling, H., et al. (2008). Social anxiety in high-functioning children and adolescents with autism and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(9), 1697–1709. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0555-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation Schedule—Generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223. doi:10.1023/A:1005592401947.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P., & Risi, S. (2002). Manual: Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic Interview—Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(5), 659–685. doi:10.1007/BF02172145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGraw, A. P., Mellers, B. A., & Ritov, I. (2004). The affective costs of overconfidence. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 17(4), 281–295. doi:10.1002/bdm.472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meaux, E., Hernandez, N., Carteau-Martin, I., Martineau, J., Barthélémy, C., Bonnet-Brilhault, F., et al. (2014). Event-related potential and eye tracking evidence of the developmental dynamics of face processing. European Journal of Neuroscience, 39(8), 1349–1362. doi:10.1111/ejn.12496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, T. O., Narens, L., & Dunlosky, J. (2004). A revised methodology for research on metamemory: Pre-judgment recall and monitoring (PRAM). Psychological Methods, 9(1), 53–69. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.9.1.53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, D., Spezio, M. L., Piven, J., & Adolphs, R. (2006). Looking you in the mouth: Abnormal gaze in autism resulting from impaired top-down modulation of visual attention. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 194–202. doi:10.1093/scan/nsl030.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K., Hamm, J. P., & Kirk, I. J. (2005). The neurophysiological correlates of face processing in adults and children with Asperger’s syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 59(1), 82–95. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K., Hamm, J. P., & Kirk, I. J. (2007). Neurophysiological responses to face, facial regions and objects in adults with Asperger’s syndrome: An ERP investigation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 63(3), 283–293. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.12.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, J. W. (2010). Data cleaning basics: Best practices in dealing with extreme scores. Newborn & Infant Nursing Reviews, 10(1), 37–43. doi:10.1053/j.nainr.2009.12.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, J. W., & Overbay, A. (2004). The power of outliers (and why researchers should always check for them). Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 9(6). Retrieved March 18, 2015 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=9&n=6

  • Pallett, P. M., Cohen, S. J., & Dobkins, K. R. (2014). Face and object discrimination in autism, and relationship to IQ and age. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1039–1054. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1955-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papanikolaou, K., Paliokosta, E., Houliaras, G., Vgenopoulou, S., Giouroukou, E., Pehlivanidis, A., et al. (2009). Using the autism diagnostic interview-revised and the autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in a Greek sample with a wide range of intellectual abilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(3), 414–420. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0639-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paulus, M., Tsalas, N., Proust, J., & Sodian, B. (2014). Metacognitive monitoring of oneself and others: Developmental changes during childhood and adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.12.011.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelphrey, K. A., Sasson, N. J., Reznick, J. S., Paul, G., Goldman, B. D., & Piven, J. (2002). Visual scanning of faces in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(4), 249–261. doi:10.1023/A:1016374617369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pishghadam, R., & Khajavy, G. H. (2013). Intelligence and metacognition as predictors of foreign language achievement: A structural equation modeling approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 176–181. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Remington, A., Campbell, R., & Swettenham, J. (2012). Attentional status of faces for people with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 16(1), 59–73. doi:10.1177/1362361311409257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Social Communication Questionnaire. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer, A. P., Williamson, P., & Young, R. (2014). Metacognitive processes in emotion recognition: Are they different in adults with Asperger’s disorder? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 1373–1382. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1999-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schanding, G. J., Nowell, K. P., & Goin-Kochel, R. P. (2012). Utility of the Social Communication Questionnaire-Current and Social Responsiveness Scale as teacher-report screening tools for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(8), 1705–1716. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1412-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26(1–2), 113–125. doi:10.1023/A:1003044231033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19(4), 460–475. doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 921–929. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179964f.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spezio, M. L., Adolphs, R., Hurley, R. S. E., & Piven, J. (2007). Abnormal use of facial information in high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(5), 929–939. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0232-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, D. N. (1994). Overconfidence in initial self-efficacy judgments: Effects on decision processes and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59(3), 452–474. doi:10.1006/obhd.1994.1069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, J. W., Wolf, J. M., Klaiman, C., Koenig, K., Cockburn, J., Herlihy, L., et al. (2010). Using computerized games to teach face recognition skills to children with autism spectrum disorder: The let’s face it! program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(8), 944–952. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02258.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168(3), 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., Schriber, R. A., & Solomon, M. (2011). Is emotion recognition impaired in individuals with autism spectrum disorders? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(1), 102–109. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1030-y.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Stel, M., & Veenman, M. V. J. (2008). Relation between intellectual ability and metacognitive skillfulness as predictors of learning performance of young students performing tasks in different domains. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(1), 128–134. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.08.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Stel, M., & Veenman, M. V. J. (2010). Development of metacognitive skillfulness: A longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(3), 220–224. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.11.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenman, M. V. J., Kok, R., & Blöte, A. W. (2005). The relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills in early adolescence. Instructional Science, 33(3), 193–211. doi:10.1007/s11251-004-2274-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenman, M. V. J., & Spaans, M. A. (2005). Relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills: Age and task differences. Learning and Individual Differences, 15(2), 159–176. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2004.12.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven, E. W. M., Marijnissen, N., Berger, H. J. C., Oudshoorn, J., van der Sijde, A., & Teunisse, J. P. (2012). Brief report: Relationship between self-awareness of real-world behavior and treatment outcome in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(5), 889–894. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1311-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vickerstaff, S., Heriot, S., Wong, M., Lopes, A., & Dossetor, D. (2007). Intellectual ability, self-perceived social competence, and depressive symptomatology in children with high-functioning autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1647–1664. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0292-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von der Linden, N., & Roebers, C. (2006). Developmental changes in uncertainty monitoring during an event recall task. Metacognition and Learning, 1(3), 213–228. doi:10.1007/s11409-006-9001-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S., Coleman, M., & Bailey, A. (2008). An investigation of basic facial expression recognition in autism spectrum disorders. Cognition and Emotion, 22(7), 1353–1380. doi:10.1080/02699930701782153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, A. T., Dapretto, M., Hariri, A. R., Sigman, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (2004). Neural correlates of facial affect processing in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(4), 481–490. doi:10.1097/00004583-200404000-00015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watier, N. N., & Collin, C. A. (2011). Metamemory for faces, names, and common nouns. Acta Psychologica, 138(1), 143–154. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.05.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watier, N., & Collin, C. (2012). The effects of distinctiveness on memory and metamemory for face–name associations. Memory, 20(1), 73–88. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.637935.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weil, L. G., Fleming, S. M., Dumontheil, I., Kilford, E. J., Weil, R. S., Rees, G., et al. (2013). The development of metacognitive ability in adolescence. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 22(1), 264–271. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.01.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weng, S., Carrasco, M., Swartz, J. R., Wiggins, J. L., Kurapati, N., Liberzon, I., et al. (2011). Neural activation to emotional faces in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(3), 296–305. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02317.x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, S., Hill, E., Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2009). Revisiting the strange stories: Revealing mentalizing impairments in autism. Child Development, 80(4), 1097–1117. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01319.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, D. A., Best, C. A., Minshew, N. J., & Strauss, M. S. (2010). Memory awareness for faces in individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(11), 1371–1377. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0995-x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P., Weiss, L., & Rolfhus, E. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–IV, technical report 2, psychometric properties. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, R., Pascalis, O., & Blades, M. (2007). Familiar face recognition in children with autism: The differential use of inner and outer face parts. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 314–320. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0169-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik, D. Z., Allen, R. J., Brown, C., & Souchay, C. (2011). Memory for actions in autism spectrum disorder. Memory, 19(6), 549–558. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.590506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik, D. Z., Moulin, C. J. A., & Souchay, C. (2013). Metamemory in children with autism: Exploring “feeling-of-knowing” in episodic and semantic memory. Neuropsychology, 27(1), 19–27. doi:10.1037/a0030526.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik, D. Z., Waterman, A. H., Lestié, C., Moulin, C. A., & Souchay, C. (2014). Metacognitive judgments-of-learning in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 18(4), 393–408. doi:10.1177/1362361313479453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, B., Clarke, N., Jordan, J., Young, A. W., Clarke, P., Miles, J., et al. (2008). Emotion recognition in faces and the use of visual context in young people with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 12(6), 607–626. doi:10.1177/1362361308097118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), through Grant R01MH071273, and the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant DED-R305C050052. The authors thank Bridget Gamber, Annie Inge, Nicole Kojkowski, Leena Mohapatra, Crystal Noller, Agu Rossetti, Caley Schwartz, and Nicole Zahka for their contributions.

Authors Contributions

CM conceived of the study, led the execution of the study, performed the statistical analyses, and drafted the manuscript; HH participated in the interpretation of the data, helped to draft the manuscript, and was co-PI of the NIMH grant that supported this study; LN participated in the design and coordination of the study and helped to draft the manuscript; MJ participated in the coordination of the study and helped to draft the manuscript; PM participated in the design of the study, helped to draft the manuscript, and was co-PI of the NIMH grant that supported this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Hamilton College, 198 College Hill Road, Clinton, NY, 13323, USA

    Camilla M. McMahon

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

    Heather A. Henderson

  3. Department of Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1020 Oakland Avenue, Indiana, PA, 15705, USA

    Lisa Newell

  4. Division of Science, Indiana University – Purdue University – Columbus, 4601 Central Avenue, Columbus, IN, 47203, USA

    Mark Jaime

  5. M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California – Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA

    Peter Mundy

Authors
  1. Camilla M. McMahon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Heather A. Henderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lisa Newell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mark Jaime
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Peter Mundy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Camilla M. McMahon.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in the current study.

Ethical Standards

This study was part of a larger study on self-monitoring in children and adolescents with ASD which was approved by the appropriate Institutional Review Board. Participants assented and parents consented to participation in the current study.

Additional information

The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of NIH or the U.S. Department of Education.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McMahon, C.M., Henderson, H.A., Newell, L. et al. Metacognitive Awareness of Facial Affect in Higher-Functioning Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 46, 882–898 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2630-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2630-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation