Abstract
Few studies have examined the associations among quality of parent–child relationships, parenting, and adolescent depression in samples of low-income mothers and fathers with large numbers of nonresidential fathers. This study used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data (N = 3,384) to examine the longitudinal associations among parent–child closeness, harsh parenting, and neglect when children were nine years old and adolescent depression at age 15. The findings indicated that children who perceived having close relationships with mothers and fathers at age nine reported significantly less depression at age 15, regardless of residential status. Moderation analyses showed a stronger negative relationship between daughters’ closeness with mothers and depression than sons’ closeness with mothers and depression. Daughters and sons who were close to fathers reported less depression. There were no significant associations among harsh discipline or neglect and depression. The findings support the use of interventions that promote healthy attachments and close parent–child relationships between low-income parents and children.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms and Profiles. University of Vermont. https://www.nctsn.org/measures/child-behavior-checklist-ages-6-18
Avenevoli, S., Swendsen, J., He, J. P., Burstein, M., & Merikangas, K. R. (2015). Major depression in the national comorbidity survey-adolescent supplement: Prevalence, correlates, and treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(1), 37-44.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.010
Bandy, T., & Moore, K. A. (2008). The parent-child relationship: A family strength. Child Trends Publication # 2008–27. http://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=. https://www.childtrends.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/Parents-Child-Relation.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK
Bender, H., Allen, J., McElhaney, K., Antonishak, J., Moore, C., Kelly, H., & Davis, S. (2007). Use of harsh physical discipline and developmental outcomes in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 19(1), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407070125
Bodner, N., Kuppens, P., Allen, N. B., Sheeber, L. B., & Ceulemans, E. (2018). Affective family interactions and their associations with adolescent depression: A dynamic network approach. Developmental Psychopathology, 30, 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001699
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Harper Torchbooks.
Branje, S. J., Hale, W. W., III., Frijns, T., & Meeus, W. H. (2010). Longitudinal associations between perceived parent-child relationship quality and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 751–763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9401-6
Brumaire, L., & Kerns, K. (2010). Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 177–203. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990344
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
Clayborne, Z. M., Varin, M., & Colman, I. (2019). Systematic review and meta-analysis: Adolescent depression and long-term psychosocial outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.896
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Cotter, K. L., Wu, Q., & Smokowski, P. R. (2016). Longitudinal risk and protective factors associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms among male and female adolescents. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47, 472–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0580-9
Crick, N. R., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). The development of psychopathology in females and males: Current progress and future challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 719–742. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14582938/
Dexter, C. A., Wong, K., Stacks, A. M., Beeghly, M., & Barnett, D. (2013). Parenting and attachment among low-income African American and Caucasian preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(4), 629–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033341
Draghi, T. T. G., Cavalcante, N., & J. L., & Tudella, E. (2021). Symptoms of anxiety and depression in schoolchildren with and without developmental coordination disorder. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(10), 1519–1527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319878253
Driscoll, K., & Pianta, R. C. (2011). Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of conflict and closeness in parent– child relationships during early childhood. Journal of Early Childhood and Infant Psychology, 7, 1–24. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013–00755–001
Eisinga, R., te Grotenhuis, M., & Pelzer, B. (2013). The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman-Brown? International Journal of Public Health, 58(4), 637–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3
Emanuela, C., Federica, G., Silvia, T., Elena, C., & Tatiana, B. (2019). Empathy and depression among early adolescents: The moderating role of parental support. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01447
Fagan, J. (2014). A review of how researchers have used theory to address research questions about fathers in three large data sets. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 6, 374–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12046
Fagan, J., & Palkovitz, R. (2018). Longitudinal associations between mothers’ perceptions of nonresidential fathers’ investment in resources and influences in decision-making. Journal of Family Psychology, 32, 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000357
Fagan, J., Palkovitz, R., Roy, K., & Farrie, D. (2009). Pathways to paternal engagement: Longitudinal effects of cumulative risk and resilience on nonresident fathers. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1389–1405. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015210
Finning, K., Ukoumunne, O. C., Ford, T., Danielsson-Waters, E., Shaw, L., De Jager, I. R., Stentiford, L., & Moore, D. A. (2019). The association between child and adolescent depression and poor attendance at school: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 928–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.055
Fragile Families. (2008). Scales documentation and question sources for five-year questionnaires. https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/ff_scales5.pdf
Gilman, S. E., Kawachi, I., Fitzmaurice, G. M., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socio-economic status, family disruption and residential stability in childhood: Relation to onset, recurrence and remission of major depression. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1341–1355.
Gold, S., Edin, K. J., & Nelson, T. J. (2020). Does time with dad in childhood pay off in adolescence? Journal of Marriage and Family, 82, 1587–1605. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12676
Hinkle, D. E., Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S. G. (2003). Applied statistics for the behavioral sciences (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
Hughes, J. L., Morrow, K. E., Spears, S. K., & Gentzler, A. L. (2021). Mothers’ and children’s depression is linked through children’s perceptions of attachment security. Infant and Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2208
Iacobucci, D., Schneider, M. J., Popovich, D. L., & Bakamitsos, G. A. (2016). Mean centering helps alleviate “micro” but not “macro” multicollinearity. Behavioral Research, 48, 1308–1317. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0624-x
Jessar, A. J., Hamilton, J. L., Flynn, M., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2017). Emotional clarity as a mechanism linking emotional neglect and depressive symptoms during early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence., 37(3), 414–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431615609157
Jonsson, U., Bohman, H., von Knorring, L., Olsson, G., Paaren, A., von Knorring, L., & A. (2011). Mental health outcome of long-term and episodic adolescent depression: 15-year follow-up of a community sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 130(3), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.046
Keizer, R., Helmerhorst, K. O. W., & van Rijn-van Gelderen, L. (2019). Perceived Quality of the Mother-Adolescent and Father-Adolescent Attachment Relationship and Adolescents’ Self-Esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 1203–1217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01007-0
Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Mroczek, D., Ustun, B., & Wittchen, H. (1998). The World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview short-form (CIDI-SF). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 7(4), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.47
Khan, F., Chong, J. Y., Theisen, J. C., Fraley, R. C., Young, J. F., & Hankin, B. L. (2020). Development and change in attachment: A multiwave assessment of attachment and its correlates across childhood and adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118, 1188–1206. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000211
Kingsbury, M., Sucha, E., Manion, I., Gilman, S. E., & Colman, I. (2020). Adolescent mental health following exposure to positive and harsh parenting in childhood. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 65(6), 392–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743719889551
Kotchick, B. A., Papadakis, A. A., & Nettles, C. (2020). Peer victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescents: The protective role of perceived supportive parenting. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 1350–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01610-6
Lei, M. K., Lavner, J. A., Carter, S. E., Hart, A. R., & Beach, S. R. H. (2021). Protective parenting behavior buffers the impact of racial discrimination on depression among Black youth. Journal of Family Psychology, 35(4), 457–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000822
Lewis, G., Collishaw, S., Thapar, A., et al. (2014). Parent–child hostility and child and adolescent depression symptoms: the direction of effects, role of genetic factors and gender. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 317–327 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0460-4
Lewis, G., Neary, M., Polek, E., Flouri, E., & Lewis, G. (2017). The association between paternal and adolescent depressive symptoms: Evidence from two population-based cohorts. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(12), 920–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30408-X
Lewis, A. J., Sae-Koew, J. H., Toumbourou, J. W., & Rowland, B. (2020). Gender differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms across childhood and adolescence: A multi-group growth mixture model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.027
Lippard, E. T. C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2019). Devastating clinical consequences of child abuse and neglect: Increased disease vulnerability and poor treatment response in mood disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 20–36. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010020
Lu, W. (2019). Adolescent depression: National trends, risk factors, and healthcare disparities. American Journal of Health Behavior, 43, 181–192. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.43.1.15
Lundberg, I., Narayanan, A., Levy, K., & Salganik, M. J. (2018). Privacy, ethics, and data access: A case study of the Fragile Families Challenge. https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/wp18-09-ff.pdf
Markowitz, A. J., & Ryan, R. M. (2016). Father absence and adolescent depression and delinquency: A comparison of siblings approach. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 78(5), 1300–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12343
Martin, A., Ryan, R. M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2010). When fathers’ supportiveness matters most: Maternal and paternal parenting and children’s school readiness. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(2), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018073
Mazza, J. J., Abbott, R. D., Fleming, C. B., Harachi, T. W., Cortes, R. C., Park, J., Haggerty, K. P., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Early predictors of adolescent depression: A 7-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(5), 664–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608324193
McLanahan, S., & Garfinkel, I. (2000). The fragile families and child wellbeing study: Questions, design, and a few preliminary results. Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, Working Paper # 00–07. https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/wp00-07-ff-mclanahan.pdf
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Child Psychology Review, 27, 986–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.03.001
Mesman, J., Minter, T., & Angnged, A. (2016). Received sensitivity: Adapting Ainsworth’s scale to capture sensitivity in a multiple-caregiver context. Attachment & Human Development, 18, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2015.1133681
Miller, L., & Campo, J. V. (2021). Depression in adolescents. The New England Journal of Medicine, 385(5), 445–449. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra2033475
Morabito, D.M., Burani, K., & Hajcak, G. (2021). Depressive symptoms prospectively predict peer victimization: A longitudinal study among adolescent females. Child Psychiatry and Human Development. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01100-7
Nelson, T. J. (2004). Low-income fathers. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 427–451. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095947
Orri, M., Galera, C., Turecki, G., Forte, A., Renaud, J., Boivin, M., Tremblay, R., Côté, S. M., & Geoffroy, M.-C. (2018). Association of childhood irritability and depressive/anxious mood profiles with adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(5), 465–473. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0174
Parke, R. D. (1981). Fathers. Harvard University Press.
Perreira, K. M., Deeb-Sossa, N., Harris, K. M., & Bollen, K. (2005). What are we measuring? An evaluation of the CES-D across race/ethnicity and immigrant generation. Social Forces, 83(4), 1567–1601. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0077
Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context, and children’s adjustment: A seven-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 68(5), 908–923. https://doi.org/10.2307/113204
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.
Ren, P., Xingna, Q., Yunyun, Z., & Ruiping, Z. (2018). Is social support a cause or consequence of depression? A longitudinal study of adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 9 https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01634
Rosenthal, N. L., & Kobak, R. (2010). Assessing adolescents’ attachment hierarchies: Differences across developmental periods and associations with individual adaptation. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 678–706. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00655.x
Roskam, I., Meunier, J. C., & Stievenart, M. (2011). Parent attachment, childrearing behavior, and child attachment: Mediated effects predicting preschoolers’ externalizing behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32(4), 170–179.
Salcuni, S. (2015). New frontiers and applications of attachment theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00273
Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2017). Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychological Bulletin, 143(8), 783–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000102
Schenck, C. E., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., Saenz, D., Cookston, J. T., & Fabricius, W. V. (2009). Relations between mattering to step- and non-residential fathers and adolescent mental health. Fathering, 7(1), 70–90. https://doi.org/10.3149/fth.0701.70
Shantz, C. U. (1987). Conflict between children. Child Development, 58, 283–305. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130507
Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28(2), 212–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06294593
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a National Sample of American Parents. Child Abuse and Neglect., 22(4), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00174-9
Vakrat, A., Apter-Levy, Y., & Feldman, R. (2018). Sensitive fathering buffers the effects of chronic maternal depression on child psychopathology. Child Psychiatry and Human Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0795-7
Van Lissa, C. J., Keizer, R., Van Lier, P. A. C., Meeus, W. H. J., & Branje, S. (2019). The role of fathers’ versus mothers’ parenting in emotion-regulation development from mid–late adolescence: Disentangling between-family differences from within-family effects. Developmental Psychology, 55(2), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000612
Volling, B., & Cabrera, N. (2019). Advancing research and measurement on fathering and children’s development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development., 84, 1–11.
Wang, M.-T., & Kenny, S. (2014). Longitudinal links between fathers’ and mothers’ harsh verbal discipline and adolescents’ conduct problems and depressive symptoms. Child Development, 85, 908–923. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12143
Weissman, M. M., Urschel, H., & Padian, N. (1980). Children’s symptom and social functioning self-report scales: Comparison of mothers’ and children’s reports. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 168(12), 736–740.
Wigham, S., Barton, S., Parr, J. R., & Rodgers, J. (2017). A Systematic review of the rates of depression in children and adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 10(4), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/19315864.2017.1299267
Yan, J., Schoppe-Sullivan, S., & Feng, X. (2019). Trajectories of mother-child and father-child relationships across middle childhood and associations with depressive symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 31(4), 1381–1393. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000809
Yap, M. B. H., Pilkington, P. D., Ryan, S. M., & Jorm, A. F. (2014). Parental factors associated with depression and anxiety in young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.007
Funding
The author did not receive any grant funding in support of this project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Standards
The author of this paper has complied with APA ethical standards (e.g., informed consent) in the treatment of the FFCW sample.
Competing Interests
There are no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to this work submitted for publication.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fagan, J. Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting and Relationships with Children and Adolescent Depression. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 50, 1339–1350 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00918-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00918-0