Introduction

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, first found in Wuhan, China, in November 2019, has resulted in an unprecedented disruption in all aspects of society including school operations at all levels. Informed by the past and most recent experiences of epidemics and pandemics, the World Health Organization (WHO) (WHO, 2020a) and governments of every nation like the Philippines (Republic of the Philippines, 2020) have developed and imposed protocols aimed at slowing down the spread of COVID-19. Such concerted effort is necessary to avoid the overwhelming of medical facilities especially the intensive care units, as well as the exhaustion of medical workers. In addition, it is hoped that these protocols would allow the governments to buy more time in developing effective vaccines and or medications.

While different governments have taken various approaches in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, from draconian measures involving the military in imposing a complete lockdown (Kupferschmidt & Cohen, 2020) to a more relaxed approach to achieving herd immunity (Vogel, 2020), some specific protocols and actions were found to be uniform for all. These include mandatory wearing of face masks, social distancing, use of hand sanitizers, and frequent handwashing (WHO, 2020b). In this study, the said specific protocols are collectively referred to as COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior—actions/behaviors that are aimed at reducing the risk of infection and or containing the rapid spread of COVID-19. Notably, there is somewhat a common understanding that a collective pandemic preventive behavior may reduce the risk and vulnerability to COVID-19. Nevertheless, the acceptance and practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior appear to be differential.

The differential acceptance and practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior may not be completely surprising considering that existing theories in psychology have enumerated determinants of behavior such as values, beliefs, and norms (Ajzen, 1991; Rosenstock, 1974; Schwartz, 1977; Stern et al., 1999) which vary according to context including important socio-demographic variables (Stern, 2000) among others. In addition, experience including literature has consistently reported the influence of context (e.g. culture and tradition) in shaping many antecedents to a behavior (Matsumoto, 2007). In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, varying degrees of context-specific and -related values, beliefs, and norms on the COVID-19 pandemic increase the differential vulnerability to COVID-19. This is in consideration of the uniform threat the pandemic is causing; therefore, apart from being urgent, an appropriate and concerted behavioral response to COVID-19 is imperative.

In this study, the researchers explored among undergraduates, the likelihood that one’s Views on the Nature of Science (VNoS), belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and trust in the government may predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. VNoS is defined as the belief in scientific knowledge and its development (Lederman, 1992). Meanwhile, belief on COVID-19 pandemic specifically refers to one’s awareness of consequences (Stern et al., 1999) of the COVID-19 pandemic (AC) and ascription to responsibility (Stern et al., 1999) in preventing the spread and stopping the COVID-19 pandemic (AR). Lastly, trust in the government refers to one’s support for and confidence in the government (Newton et al., 2018) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic possesses the elements of a socio-scientific issue (SSI) (Sadler, 2009), referred to as a controversial social issue with conceptual and procedural links to science (Sadler, 2004). Recent studies such as the works of Herman and colleagues (2022) and Chadwick and McLoughlin (2022) have explicitly referred to the COVID-19 pandemic as an SSI. In science education, there has been increasing advocacy about the use of SSIs in teaching as it increases the engagement of the learners with real-world problems, hence making learning more meaningful. In dealing with SSIs such as the COVID-19 pandemic, one’s VNoS is imperative in making any actions related to it. However, there is a deficit in the literature on studies that explored the probability that one’s VNoS predicts COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. The researchers hypothesize the complementarity of scientific literacy (i.e., manifested through one’s VNoS) and the prevalence of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. A higher level of VNoS may result in a more prevalent practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. In the same way, less prevalent practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior may be evidence of low-level VNoS.

Similarly, behavioral theories (Ajzen, 1991; Schwartz, 1977; Stern et al., 1999) including the Health Belief Model (Janz & Becker, 1984; Rosenstock, 1974) has illustrated that one’s belief about health predicts health behavior. While the object of health belief and VNoS (i.e. belief in scientific knowledge and its development) are different, the fact that both refer to one’s held and accepted propositions bound with emotional commitment can be considered similar. That being so, the researchers hypothesize that belief on COVID-19 pandemic, specifically AC and AR may predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Lastly, through observations and experiences about the different approaches taken by governments and the levels of success in containing the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers hypothesize that trust in the government may also predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior.

Some shreds of evidence from literature explored the influence of science and belief on health, as well as perceived trust in the government in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in various contexts (Apeti, 2021; Oude Groeniger et al., 2021; Sulik et al., 2021); however, limited studies from literature collectively explored VNoS, belief, and trust in the government as possible predictors of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior, specifically among undergraduate students (Peng et al., 2020). More so in the study context.

In the Philippines, the Commission on Higher Education reported that during the academic year 2019–2020, around 3,408,425 students were enrolled in various undergraduate programs (Commission on Higher Education, 2020). This number comprises about three percent of the total population of the country and five percent of the adult population (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2022). While with certainty the undergraduates represent a unique group in society in general, the researcher thinks that they may be influential considering their relatively active lifestyle including voice and mobility. That being so, exploring VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and trust in the government as predictors of the COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior may be relevant. This study contributes to the body of knowledge on scientific literacy specifically on reflecting COVID-19 as an SSI. Moreover, it contributes to the body of knowledge on health behavior in times of pandemic specifically on the growing number of essential antecedents to pandemic preventive behavior. Finally, the model generated in this study may be informative to policymakers in universities and schools. These sectors experience a high vulnerability to the COVID-19 pandemic and related entities in making long-term solutions (e.g. pandemic preparedness).

COVID-19 Pandemic, a Socio-scientific Issue that Requires ‘Scientific’ Behavior

COVID-19 pandemic possesses the characteristics and elements of an SSI. SSIs are open-ended problems without clear-cut solutions that are intertwined with influential factors such as politics, economics, and ethics (Sadler, 2011). Moreover, SSIs tend to have multiple plausible solutions that may vary according to context including one’s VNoS, exactly in the case of the COVID-19 pandemic. A shred of evidence that the COVID-19 pandemic is a socio-scientific issue could be the different approaches undertaken by the government (Kupferschmidt & Cohen, 2020; Vogel, 2020) and the variation in beliefs, norms, and behavior of the public (Collis et al., 2022) that resulted in different increase/decrease of recorded cases and deaths per country. Some recent studies have explicitly referred to the COVID-19 pandemic as a socio-scientific issue. For example, the work of Herman and colleagues (2022) about university biology students’ perceptions of COVID-19 science as associated with COVID-19 behavior and other demographic variables. There is also the work of Betul Cebesoy and Chang Rundgren (2021) about the influences on preservice teachers’ perceptions and decisions about SSIs, and the work of Chadwick and McLoughlin (2022) on school science teachers’ perspectives on addressing the COVID-19 pandemic as an SSI.

In the last two decades or so, there had been increasing advocacy for the use of SSIs in teaching across levels. This is in consideration that SSIs link science to issues relevant to a learner’s life, the environment, and their role as a citizen (Hofstein et al., 2011). Similarly, it increases preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy (Yahaya et al., 2015), including their self-efficacy and learning-related beliefs, and improved their teaching practices (Maass et al., 2022). Moreover, it improves the informal reasoning skills of primary learners (Karpudewan & Roth, 2018), enhances the communication skills of 9th-grade learners (Chung et al., 2016), and increases conceptual understanding of water pollution of 7th-grade learners among others (Kiryak & Çalik, 2018). In a Delphi study conducted by Wan and Bi (2020), regarding what major SSIs to be focused on in the science curriculum, Chinese experts pointed out environmental issues, resources and energy, ecological systems, biotechnology, new materials, and safety and health such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Related thereto, Lederman (1992) has put forward the concept of VNoS, defined as the belief in scientific knowledge and its development. Leaderman and colleagues (2002) have synthesized seven aspects of VNoS including (a) the empirical nature of scientific knowledge, (b) scientific theories and laws, (c) the creative and imaginative nature of scientific knowledge, (d) the theory-laden nature of scientific knowledge, (e) the social embeddedness of scientific knowledge, (f) myth of the scientific method, and (g) the tentative nature of scientific knowledge. The descriptions of aspects of VNoS in Table 1 were extracted from the works of Lederman and colleagues (2002).

Table 1 Aspects of VNoS and their conceptualization (extracted from Lederman et al., 2002)
Full size table

Behavioral theories suggest that VNoS impacts one’s perception and response to an SSI (Kim & Hamdan Alghamdi, 2021). That being so, the researchers hypothesize that the prevalent practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior is likely predicted by the strength of one’s VNoS. Therefore, the researchers hypothesize that VNoS may be a predictor of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H1), belief on COVID-19 pandemic (H2), and trust in the government (H3).

Belief and Health Behavior

Belief specifically refers to one’s consciously or unconsciously held propositions that are accepted as truth and imbued with emotional commitment, hence guiding one’s thought and or behavior (Borg, 2001, p. 186). Behavioral theories have established that the value placed by one on a goal and their belief of the likelihood that a given action will achieve the goal determine a specific behavior. If translated to health context, health behavior is determined by one’s desire to avoid illness and belief that specific actions will prevent illness as illustrated in the Health Belief Model (Janz & Becker, 1984, p. 2).

A more recent interpretation of the Health Belief Model postulated that general values and beliefs on health consequences influence health behavior. Mckellar and Sillence (2020) illustrated that if individuals perceive a threat to their health, and the perceived benefits outweigh perceived barriers, that individual is likely to undertake preventive health behavior.

In this study, two sub-dimensions of belief on the COVID-19 pandemic were assessed, AC and AR. Conceptually, AC refers to the individual’s perception of the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, AR refers to the belief that one’s behavior can alleviate the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (Stern et al., 1999). The researchers think that as one of the antecedents to general behavior, COVID-19 pandemic-related beliefs may be an essential key driver toward pandemic prevention and preparedness. In addition, the researchers believe that one of the reasons for the differential vulnerability of communities and nations may be the differences in belief on the COVID-19 pandemic among the populations. That being so, the researchers hypothesize the likelihood that belief on COVID-19 pandemic may predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H4) and trust in the government (H5), as well as its possible mediation between VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H7).

Trust in the Government and Pandemic Prevention

Trust refers to a relationship whereby a trustor voluntarily makes themselves vulnerable to the decision/action of a trustee with the aspiration of a more significant payoff than would be without trust (Coleman, 2000). Therefore, trust in the government may be conceptualized as how people perceive that the government produces an outcome consistent with their expectations (Hetherington, 2006). In short, it is the public support for and confidence in the government (Newton et al., 2018). Related thereto, LoMonte (2020) pointed out that public health depends on public trust. That being so, trust in the government may somewhat influence the acceptance and practice of COVID-19 protocols, hence imperative to COVID-19 pandemic prevention and preparedness.

Studies have revealed that trust in the government during the COVID-19 pandemic is important in predicting crisis management effects associated with low numbers of COVID-19 cases and deaths (Apeti, 2021). Moreover, it determines the frequency of following the recommended health protocol such as frequent handwashing of Swedes (Johansson et al., 2021) or the likelihood of practicing preventive measures such as support for stay-at-home requests and the use of contact tracing applications in Japan (Gotanda et al., 2021). Further, trust in the government is also associated with the adoption of health and pro-social behavior (Han et al., 2021) and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and hesitancy in the case of New Zealand (Prickett & Chapple, 2021).

Nevertheless, studies showed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, different countries manifested different levels of trust in the government (Tan et al., 2021). Such levels may change over time (Nielsen & Lindvall, 2021; Oude Groeniger et al., 2021) as a result of the different approaches and measures taken by governments at the onset and during the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in variation in public perception and opinion (Oude Groeniger et al., 2021). This phenomenon is interesting, and the researchers would like to further elucidate the importance of trust in the government as an antecedent to COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior based on the Norm-Activation Theory.

Recalling the work of Schwartz (1977), the Norm-Activation Theory claimed that behavior is largely predicted by norms or the feeling of moral obligation. Literature established two types of norms. Personal norm refers to principles, rules, or cognitive heuristics in evaluating and prescribing behavior. It is experienced as feelings of moral obligation (Schwartz & Howard, 1981). Meanwhile, social norm refers to social pressures that individual experiences from other people that they consider significant or the society to engage in a specific behavior (Yadav, 2016) or simply the expectation that one is morally and ethically obliged to act (Choi et al., 2015). Along this line, studies of different behavioral contexts have illustrated the significantly considerable influence of norms as compared to other antecedents to behavior, including pro-environmental behavior (Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999) and disaster risk reduction (blinded for review).

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a need to shift daily activities among people, including the need to change habits and practices for prevention and reduction of the risk of contracting COVID-19. It was observed how some people willingly embraced the new normal while others stubbornly refuse to adhere to the new normal. Now the question is, in disaster situations like the COVID-19 pandemic, who sets the new norm that may result in concerted pandemic prevention and preparedness among the populations? The researchers think that it is the role of the government to establish the new norm during disaster situations as a form of social norm. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the strength and expertise of governments were unveiled and showcased through the different approaches they took against the COVID-19 pandemic that led to different outcomes. The said strength and expertise may be manifested through planning and implementing relevant rules and regulations, including assessment. It may significantly impact COVID-19 pandemic prevention and preparedness. Nevertheless, another related critical factor is people’s trust in the government.

Early on, Levi (1998) pointed out that the trustworthiness of the government influences its capacity to generate interpersonal trust among the population, and the amount of socially and economically productive cooperation in the society and turn affects the capacity to govern (pp87-88). In this study, the researchers think that undergraduates’ trust in the government during the COVID-19 pandemic significantly matters considering their relatively active representation in society. By representation, the researchers meant their aggressive voice on various platforms including social media and the Internet, as well as their mobility. That being so, the researchers hypothesize that trust in the government may be a predictor of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H6) and its possible mediation between VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H8), as well as between belief and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (H9).

COVID-19 Pandemic Preventive Behavior

COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior refers to a behavioral set to reduce the risk of contraction and rapid spread of COVID-19. At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, informed by past experiences of pandemics and epidemics, the WHO and other relevant health agencies such as the DOH have outlined recommended public protocol for safety and prevention of COVID-19 infection and rapid spread (Republic of the Philippines, 2020; WHO, 2020a). An earlier study of (blinded for review) attempted to determine the dimensions of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior that included (a) direct preventive behaviors, (b) healthy habits and lifestyle, (c) limited physical social contact, (d) COVID-19 curiosity, and (e) COVID-19 support. Similar past studies enumerated preventive behavior against pandemic influenza of 1918–1919 (Markel et al., 2007), SARS (Vartti et al., 2009), AH1N1 (Cowling et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2014), anthrax, West Nile virus, and smallpox (Fischhoff et al., 2003). A few studies have enumerated and outlined COVID-19 pandemic behavior such as Lin and Chen (2021) in Taiwan, Breakwell and colleagues (2021) in England, Barakat and Kasemy (2020) in Egypt, and Gutu and colleagues (2021) in Ethiopia among others. Although may not be directly related to COVID-19 behavior, extant literature reported a variety of risk-taking and preventive health behaviors (Vickers et al., 1990) and health behavior representations (Shiloh & Nudelman, 2020) among others.

An in-depth understanding of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior is imperative because there is somewhat a common understanding that a collective COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior may result in concerted pandemic prevention and preparedness. Consequently, the risk and vulnerability of the population to COVID-19 are significantly reduced.

Purpose and Hypotheses of the Study

The foregoing study aimed to explore the likelihood that VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and perceived trust in the government predict undergraduates’ COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. As such, this study may contribute to the growing body of knowledge on antecedents to COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior that could inform relevant policy-making bodies such as schools, universities, and similar entities to make relevant policies and decisions. The following hypotheses were tested in the study. The same hypotheses are illustrated in Fig. 1.

  1. 1.

    VNoS predicts COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

  2. 2.

    VNoS predicts belief

  3. 3.

    VNoS predicts trust in the government

  4. 4.

    Belief predicts COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

  5. 5.

    Belief predicts trust in the government

  6. 6.

    Trust in the government predicts COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

  7. 7.

    Belief mediates VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

  8. 8.

    Trust in the government mediates VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

  9. 9.

    Trust in the government mediates belief and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior

Fig. 1
figure 1

Model specifying the study hypotheses

Full size image

Before this study, a pilot study was conducted to ensure the factor structure of the variables under study (to be reported elsewhere). That being so, in this study, VNoS is a second-order construct composed of six first-order constructs including NOS-A (NoS1 and NoS2), NOS-B (NoS3 to NoS5), NOS-C (NoS6 to NoS9), NOS-D (NoS10 to NoS14), NOS-E (NoS15 to NoS18), and NOS-F (NoS19 to NoS24). Similarly, belief on COVID-19 pandemic is also a second-order construct composed of four first-order constructs including AC-A (AC1and AC2), AC-B (AC3 and AC4), AC-C (AC5 to AC8), and AR (AR1 to AR5). Trust in the government is a first-order construct composed of 11 items (TrG1 to TrG11). Finally, COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior is a second-order construct composed of five first-order constructs including CPPBa (CPPB1 to CPPB7), CPPBb (CPPB8 to CPPB13), CPPBc (CPPB14 to CPPB18), CPPBd (CPPB19 and CPPB20), and CPPBe (CPPB21to CPPB23).

Methodology

This quantitative survey was conducted in one of the state universities in the Eastern Visayas Region located in Tacloban City, the Philippines. Considering the numerous limitations faced during the data collection from September to November 2020, convenience sampling of participants was employed. After obtaining permission from the university administration, the assistance of 12 faculty was sought in data collection using a Google survey. A total of 410 participants responded to the survey and 389 entries (mean age = 20.16 years old; 72% female, 28% male) were retained after data cleaning.

To ensure that the number of participants was sufficient for statistical analysis through partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), the gamma exponential method using the G*Power calculator that is available online was employed (Faul et al., 2009; Kock & Hadaya, 2018). With a 0.83 level of power, 0.20 effect size, p < 0.05, and three predictors, the study required a minimum of 63 participants (Hair et al., 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2019).

Instrument

A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire on VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, trust in the government, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior was used in the study. Items were adapted from the works of Chen and colleagues (2013) for VNoS (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85), Steg and colleagues (2005) for belief (i.e. AC and AR) (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85 and 0.80, respectively), Grimmelikhuijsen and Knies (2015) for trust in the government (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83–0.87), and (blinded for review) for COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80–0.84).

The original VNoS questionnaire developed and validated by Chen and colleagues (2013) was composed of seven dimensions, namely, theory-ladenness (nine items), creativity (six items), coherence (11 items), tentativeness (nine items), durability (six items), science for girls (three items), and science for boys (three items). Meanwhile, the questionnaire on beliefs on COVID-19 pandemic adopted in this study was from the work of Steg and colleagues (2005) originally used to test the Value–Belief–Norm Theory in the context of energy policy acceptability. The questionnaire has two dimensions: awareness of consequences (six items) and ascription to responsibility (six items). Moving on, the items for trust in the government were adapted from the works of Grimmelikhuijsen and Knies (2015) on scale validation for citizens’ trust in government organizations. The questionnaire is composed of three dimensions namely benevolence (three items), competence (three items), and integrity (three items). The researchers added two items that were deemed relevant for the study. Finally, the items on COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior were adapted from the works of (blinded for review). The original questionnaire was composed of six dimensions, namely, direct preventive behavior (five items), healthy habits and lifestyle (three items), limited physical social contact (five items), COVID-19 curiosity (three items), COVID-19 support (three items), and protecting others (two items). After the pilot study (to be reported elsewhere), the final instrument used in the present study included 37 items for VNoS, 13 items for belief, 11 items for trust in the government, and 29 items for COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior.

Data Analysis

The study involved a hierarchical construct model (HCM) and was exploratory, therefore analyzing data through PLS-SEM using Smart PLS (Sarstedt et al., 2019) is most appropriate. It included an assessment of the measurement model whereby indicator reliability (outer loading ≥ 0.708), internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha ≥ 0.70, composite reliability ≥ 0.70, Djikstra–Henseler’s rho ≥ 0.70), construct reliability and validity (average variance explained ≥ 0.50), and discriminant validity (heterotrait–monotrait ratio ≥ 0.50) were ascertained (Hair et al., 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2019). It was followed by an assessment of the structural model whereby collinearity (variance inflation factors ≤ 3.3), direct and indirect effects (p value ≤ 0.05, t value ≥ 1.654), predictive accuracy (R2 = 0.75 substantial, 0.50 moderate, and 0.25 weak), effect size (f2 = 0.35 substantial, 0.15 moderate, and 0.02 small), and predictive relevance (Q2 > 0.0) were measured (Hair et al., 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2019).

Results

Assessment of Measurement Model

The complete result of the indicator reliability, item consistency, and convergent validity and reliability of the constructs, VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, trust in the government, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior is presented in Appendix 1. All items have outer loading ≥ 0.70 confirming individual indicator reliability. Except for NOS-A and NOS-B whose Cronbach’s alpha and Djikstra–Henseler’s rho values were < 0.70, the rest of the constructs of VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, trust in the government, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior have Cronbach’s alpha, Djikstra–Henseler’s rho, and composite reliability that is ≥ 0.70 and average variance extracted that is ≥ 0.50, therefore ascertaining convergent validity (Hair et al., 2017). Nevertheless, NOS-A and NOS-B were retained considering that their respective composite reliability and average variance extracted fall within the acceptable thresholds of ≥ 0.70 and ≥ 0.50 respectively (Hair et al., 2017).

NOS-A refers to the belief that before observation, people already possess ideas of what to observe and all they need to do is prepare a table to fill up. Meanwhile, NOS-B refers to the belief that there are many ways in solving a problem and everyone has different ideas they want to prove through observation. NOS-C refers to the belief that there is only one method to solve a problem and that following a standard procedure is necessary. NOS-D refers to the belief about the need for creativity and imagination in scientific processes while NOS-E refers to the belief that scientific knowledge and processes are dynamic, that is, they change with time. Finally, NOS-F refers to the belief that scientific knowledge and processes are fixed and enduring, and hence will not easily change with time.

Moving on, along with the belief on COVID-19 pandemic, AC-A refers to the belief that the COVID-19 pandemic is a real concern of society today while AC-B refers to the belief that one’s efforts related to the COVID-19 pandemic can reduce the spread and impact of the disease. AC-C refers to the belief that lacking cooperation and knowledge, difficulty in preventing the spread of COVID-19, and the absence of medicine and vaccine are real concerns.

CPPBa refers to direct preventive behavior such as wearing a face mask, washing hands frequently, and using hand sanitizers while CPPBb refers to healthy habits and lifestyles like eating healthy food and taking vitamin C and food supplements including regular exercise and sleep. CPPBc refers to physical social distancing such as staying at home and avoiding travel. Meanwhile, CPPBd refers to exploring effective and new ways in preventing the spread of COVID-19. Finally, CPPBe refers to the readiness to contribute resources and support local government and non-government organizations working towards COVID-19 prevention (see Appendix 2 for a complete list of items).

Table 2 presents the heterotrait–monotrait ratio. Values are all within the acceptable threshold provided by the literature, hence confirming the discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2017).

Table 2 Discriminant validity results (heterotrait–monotrait ratio)
Full size table

Assessment of Structural Model

Table 3 presents the inner and outer variance inflation factors during the first and second stage assessment, respectively. Notably, all values were below the stringent threshold of 3.3 (Hair et al., 2017), confirming no existing collinearity issues among the variables under study.

Table 3 Collinearity, predictive accuracy, and predictive relevance
Full size table

Tables 4 and 5 present the direct and indirect effects (i.e. β, T, p values, and confidence intervals bias-corrected) of the variables under study as illustrated in Fig. 2. Results revealed that VNoS (β = 0.202, p = 0.007) and belief (β = 0.380, p = 0.001) predicted COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Moreover, VNoS also predicted belief on COVID-19 pandemic (β = 0.554, p = 0.001). Surprisingly, neither VNoS (β = 0.223, p = 0.040) nor belief on COVID-19 pandemic (β =  − 0.018, p = 0.406) predicted trust in the government and trust in the government did not predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (β =  − 0.036, p = 0.284). Further, results also showed that belief on COVID-19 pandemic mediated between VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (β = 0.211, p = 0.001). However, trust in the government did not mediate between VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (β =  − 0.008, p =  − 0.008) and between belief on COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (β = 0.001, p = 0.001).

Table 4 Direct effects
Full size table
Table 5 Specific indirect effects
Full size table
Fig. 2
figure 2

Direct effects (note: thick arrows confirm direct effects)

Full size image

Moving on, Table 3 presents the predictive accuracy and predictive relevance of the variables under study. Belief on COVID-19 pandemic (R2 = 0.307) and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (R2 = 0.266) had substantial predictive accuracy, while trust in the government (R2 = 0.045) had weak predictive accuracy (Cohen, 1988).

VNoS had a substantial effect size on belief (f2 = 0.444), a small effect size on COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (f2 = 0.037), and trust in the government (f2 = 0.036). Belief had a small effect size on COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (f2 = 0.136) and trust in the government (f2 = 0.001), while trust in the government had a small effect size on COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior (f2 = 0.002) (Cohen, 1988; Hair et al., 2014). Nevertheless, belief, trust in the government, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior had predictive relevance concerning the model specified, given that all Q2 values were greater than zero (Hair et al., 2014).

Discussion

Socio-scientific Issues and the Role of Views on the Nature of Science

VNoS as one of the predictors of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior established in this study confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic is indeed an SSI as pointed out earlier in the works of Herman and colleagues (2022), Betul Cebesoy and Chang Rundgren (2021), and Chadwick and McLoughlin (2022). That being so, to solicit an appropriate response, an SSI requires a certain level of VNoS, that is belief on scientific knowledge and its development from people such as the study participants. In this study, such belief includes the belief that before observation, people already possess ideas and assumptions that directs their observation of phenomena. It also includes the belief that there is no one method in solving a problem vis-à-vis the belief that there is one fixed method and solution to a problem. In addition, it includes the belief on the need and importance of creativity and imagination in generating scientific knowledge through experimentation, as well as the belief on the dynamic nature of scientific knowledge and processes vis-à-vis the enduring nature of scientific knowledge and processes.

Related thereto, the researchers infer that significantly low-level VNoS could be one of the reasons for one’s failure to decipher fake from legitimate news and information including the tendency to believe in conspiracy theories. This tendency is not surprising because one’s interpretation and trust in empirical data and scientific processes are influenced and informed by their respective VNoS. Hence, it is necessary to strengthen one’s VNoS.

This study, therefore, affirms the urgent call for advocacy for the inclusion and integration of critical scientific literacy (Sjöström et al., 2016) in teaching. Literature suggested that this can be achieved by integrating important and timely SSIs such as environmental issues, safety, and health among others (Wan & Bi, 2020). Studies reported that the use of SSIs in teaching can enhance habits of the mind (Çalik et al., 2014), improve the sense of efficacy (Yahaya et al., 2015), boost self-efficacy and learning beliefs, and upgrade teaching practices (Maass et al., 2022) among preservice teachers, increase conceptual understanding (Kiryak & Çalik, 2018) and enhance communication skills (Chung et al., 2016) of middle school learners, and improve informal reasoning of primary school learners (Karpudewan & Roth, 2018) among others.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic including the findings of this study that VNoS predicted belief on COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior necessitate to hasten the teaching and integration of critical scientific literacy. It justifies the need to put upfront the more complex and complicated dimensions of scientific literacy including character and values, science as a human endeavor, and metacognition, not to mention content knowledge and habits of the mind (Choi et al., 2011). Therefore, universities including schools, being in charge of formal education, play a key role along this line. Universities and schools alike should ensure that science curricula are effectively and efficiently used as platforms for critical scientific literacy.

On another note, along with governance, the researchers think that increased transparency and clarity in communication on the use of scientific knowledge and processes in all stages of development from planning, implementation, and assessment, as well as in providing solutions to emerging SSIs like the COVID-19 pandemic may aid in increasing trust in the government.

Synergy of Beliefs

This study revealed that belief on COVID-19 pandemic predicted COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior and mediated between VNoS and COVID-19 pandemic behavior. In this study, belief on COVID-19 pandemic includes AC which refers to the belief that the COVID-19 pandemic is a real concern of society today. It also refers to the belief that lacking cooperation and knowledge, difficulty in preventing the spread of COVID-19, and the absence of medicine and vaccine are real concerns. It also includes AR which refers to the feeling of responsibility to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and the feeling of responsibility to develop the capacity of oneself, family, and other people to prevent the spread of COVID-19.

Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen and increase one’s beliefs on COVID-19 pandemic to increase the likelihood of practicing COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. It may be possible through appropriate and responsible awareness and information dissemination campaigns using different media platforms, including social media.

Furthermore, results showed that VNoS influenced belief on COVID-19 pandemic. This result is interesting because VNoS after all is also a form of belief (i.e. belief in scientific knowledge and its development). Increasing one’s VNoS will consequently increase one’s belief on COVID-19 pandemic resulting in an increased likelihood of prevalent practice of COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Although one influences the other, increasing the synergy between and among VNoS and belief on COVID-19 pandemic may result in more robust, perhaps an unprecedented practice of COVID-19 pandemic prevention and preparedness or a more responsive and proactive action towards an SSI in general.

Noting that context, culture, and tradition are essential associates with one’s belief in general, it may be necessary to positively and boldly influence belief on empirical data and scientific processes. It is imperative to develop a reasonable balance between extreme skepticism and objectivity through careful observation and rationality. Though intricate and no one possible strategy, there is a need to increase the blending and intertwining of scientific knowledge and its development with culture, tradition, norms, and practices. The perception that science, culture, and tradition are separate entities needed to be reduced and possibly eradicated. Related thereto, the role of universities and schools may be crucial in developing objectivity and criticality in balancing between beliefs on empirical data and cultural/traditional beliefs. Being able to find the right balance between these two may result in a concerted effort to responsibly address SSIs such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Trust in the Government, Science, and COVID-19 Pandemic

Results revealed that trust in the government did not predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Similarly, VNoS and belief on COVID-19 pandemic did not predict trust in the government. These findings are interesting because the researchers hypothesized at the onset of the study that trust in the government would predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Positively if trust in the government was high and negatively if trust in the government was low. Nevertheless, the results showed neither. It appeared that at least with the study participants, the government seemed to be an entity in a different dimension during the COVID-19 pandemic. With certainty, these findings may have certain implications and explanations. The researchers hypothesize that among the reasons could be that the participants could not or did not comprehend or perceive the role and function of the government during the COVID-19 pandemic or the participants’ lack of and disinterest in government-related affairs. Nevertheless, the interpretation of the findings about trust in the government found in this study requires extreme caution considering the fluidity of trust in the government as a variable. In this study, trust in the government was referred to as the whole government entity in general, but extant literature pointed out that government may refer to its leaders or the institutions per se (Nielsen & Lindvall, 2021), while Oude Groeniger and colleagues (2021) pointed out that trust in the government and science may be interpreted as confidence in the institution that takes action at times of crises.

Although the findings of this study are limited to its participants and context, still the researchers consider it agitating that the government has little influence on behavior in general during disaster situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic because it is expected to facilitate order and justice during crises. Literature has documented several ways to promote and maintain trust in the government. For instance, Lofredo (2020) pointed out that trust in the government may be promoted when the government shows that everyone matters, and is treated with respect, care, and concern. The same can be sustained through honest, fair, just, and humane governance, just and orderly distribution of resources, goods, and services, including maintenance of essential public service, order, and peace. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Liu and colleagues (2022) found that integrated government response policies, containment health measures, and economic relief were crucial to winning trust and support while the provision of impartial, transparent, and truthful government communication is vital to maintaining trust. Similarly, Han and colleagues (2021) found that the government perceived as well organized and disseminating clear messages, knowledge, and information about COVID-19 positively associated with high trust in the government. Following the study findings, it may be imperative for the government to develop new and improve existing communication protocols and strategies for young adults like the participants of this study. As mentioned earlier, undergraduates have relatively active lifestyles (i.e. aggressive voice and increased mobility). As such, they could create significant ripples and influence the people around them and their respective communities.

Limitations and Recommendations

This study is exploratory. The challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in limitations in the study context, including participants and sampling. As such, it may be necessary to replicate the present study with larger and various groups of participants and look into the influence of important demographic variables such as age, gender, educational qualification, income, and development levels of countries (Adalı, 2022; Rieger & Wang, 2021; Xie et al., 2021). Moreover, it may also be interesting to explore further and in-depth through qualitative methods the reasons and explanations of the influences of the variables established in this study. In addition, the study was limited in exploring three antecedents to COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior and analyzed through second-order PLS-SEM. The result gave a significant picture of the interaction between and among the second-order variables (i.e. VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior), it may be interesting to explore in great detail the specific direct and indirect effects of the first-order variables on VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior including trust in the government.

This study established the vital interaction of VNoS, belief on COVID-19 pandemic, and COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior. Therefore, ways to effectively and efficiently strengthen VNoS and belief on COVID-19 pandemic must be explored. Along this line, SSIs in teaching and learning must be advanced.

In the study, trust in the government did not predict COVID-19 pandemic preventive behavior nor did trust in the government predicted VNoS and belief on COVID-19 pandemic as opposed to what was established in the literature. Therefore, it is interesting to dig deeper and understand the reasons and explanations related to that. This action is imperative considering the critical role of the government during disaster situations, especially in large-scale disasters such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Finally, the model generated in this study may be used to develop policies on integration and inclusion of pandemic prevention and readiness in schools and universities and other similar entities.