Abstract
Based on the pedigree of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as a credible international organization with proven track records of coordinating challenging environmental assessments and providing scientific and empirical evidence for policymaking and implementation, the Nigerian government invited it to carry out an environmental assessment study of Ogoniland, an oil-bearing community in the country’s Niger Delta region. After 2 years of study, the UNEP project team submitted its report which contained science-backed evidence of massive environmental pollution and degradation with serious consequences for biodiversity conservation. The paper examines UNEP’s report and recommendations within the context of state commitment to processing the remediation and restoration of Ogoniland. Instructively, over 7 years after the submission of the UNEP report, the various expected actions necessary to facilitate the commencement of the clean-up and remediation programme are still at the preparatory stages thus raising doubts about the commitment of stakeholders to the project, their serial assurances notwithstanding. Using data generated from key informant interviews and secondary sources which are analysed within the context of ecological modernization theoretical milieu, the paper underscores the interconnection between the restoration of the polluted Ogoniland, the boosting of people’s livelihood and sustainable development, all of which would reverse the pressures of conflicts and violence in the Niger Delta region.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) (nd). The world factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html.
Based on CBN/Official Exchange rate of N306/1USD. At the black/parallel market, it was N363/1USD as at May 2018.
Artisanal refining connotes illegal refining of crude oil in makeshift facilities. Often, this involves using metal drums to boil crude oil and channeled through a network pipes welded together to collecting tanks.
References
Abia, D. (2017). Ogoni cleanup: Mixed reactions trail presidential order. Independent, 24 December. https://independent.ng/ogoni-cleanup-mixed-reactions-trail-presidential-order/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Acey, C. (2016). Managing wickedness in the Niger Delta: Can a new approach to multi-stakeholder governance increase voice and sustainability? Landscape and Urban Planning,154, 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.03.014.
Adetayo, O. (2018). Ogoni cleanup: Osinbajo promises transparent exercise as FG signs agreement. Punch, 28 April. http://punchng.com/ogoni-cleanup-osinbajo-promises-transparent-exercise-as-fg-signs-agreement/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Adoki, A. (2011). Petroleum hydrocarbons contamination profile of Ochani Stream in Ejamah Ebubu, Eleme Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management,15(4), 547–557.
Adugbo, D. (2012). The people, land and politics: Oil exploration in colonial and post colonial Nigeria. http://integritynigeria.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/THE-FINAL-COPY-PEOPLE-LAND-AND-POLITICS-OIL-EXPLORATION-IN-COLONIAL-AND-POST-COLONIAL-NIGERIA.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2015.
Agbiboa, D. E., & Maiangwa, B. (2012). Corruption in the underdevelopment of the Niger Delta in Nigeria. The Journal of Pan African Studies,5(8), 108–132.
Akasike, C. (2018). Clean-up of 26 polluted areas in Ogoni begins August—HYPREP. Punch, 21 April. http://punchng.com/clean-up-of-26-polluted-areas-in-ogoni-begins-august-hyprep/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Akpokodje, J., & Salau, S. (2015). Oil pollution and agricultural productivity in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Environmental Economics,6(4), 68–75.
Allen, F. (2012). Implementation of oil related environmental policies in Nigeria: Government inertia and conflict in the Niger Delta. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Anifowose, B., Lawler, D. M., van der Horst, D., & Chapman, L. (2012). Attacks on oil transport pipelines in Nigeria: A quantitative exploration and possible explanation of observed patterns. Applied Geography,32(2), 636–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.07.012.
Anifowose, B., Lawler, D., van der Horst, D., & Chapman, C. (2014). Evaluating interdiction of oil pipelines at river crossings using environmental impact assessments. Area,46(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12065.
Babalola, D. (2014). The underdevelopment of Nigeria’s Niger Delta region: Who is to blame? Journal of Sustainable Development,7(3), 118–128.
Becker, P. (2014). Sustainability science: Managing risk and resilience for sustainable development. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Bodo, T., & David, L. K. (2018). The petroleum exploitation and pollution in Ogoni, Rivers State, Nigeria: The community perspective. European Scientific Journal,14(32), 197–212.
Boele, R., Fabig, H., & Wheeler, D. (2001). Shell, Nigeria and the Ogoni. A study in unsustainable development: The story of Shell, Nigeria and the Ogoni people—Environment, economy, relationships: Conflict and prospects for resolution. Sustainable Development,9(3), 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.161.
Chereji, C., & King, C. W. (2015). Aspects of traditional conflict management practices among the Ogoni of Nigeria. Conflict Studies Quarterly,10, 56–68.
Chukwu, I. (2017). UNEP report: Financial insight and other matters in the Ogoni clean-up exercise. Business Day, 20 August. https://www.businessdayonline.com/unep-report-financial-insight-matters-ogoni-clean-exercise/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Chukwu, I. (2018). Major leap forward in $1bn Ogoni clean-up project. Business Day, May 26. http://www.businessdayonline.com/major-leap-forward-1bn-ogoni-clean-project/. Accessed June 2, 2018.
Demirel-Pegg, T., & Pegg, S. (2015). Razed, repressed and bought off: The demobilization of the Ogoni protest campaign in the Niger Delta. The Extractive Industries and Society,2(4), 654–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2015.09.004.
Denedo, M., Thomson, I., & Yonekura, A. (2017). International advocacy NGOs, counter accounting, accountability and engagement. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal,30(6), 1309–1343.
Dibua, J. (2005). Citizenship and resource control in Nigeria: The case of minority communities in the Niger Delta. Africa Spectrum,40(1), 5–28.
Duru, C. U. (2014). Environmental degradation: Key challenge to sustainable economic development in the Niger delta. Walden dissertations and doctoral studies. http://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1113&context=dissertations. Accessed July 22, 2017.
Ebegbulem, J. C. (2011). Federalism and the politics of resource control in Nigeria: A critical analysis of the Niger Delta crisis. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science,1(12), 218–229.
Eboh, M. (2017). 13% derivation: Oil-producing states receive N7trn in 8 years. Vanguard, 22 August. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/08/13-derivation-oil-producing-states-receive-n7trn-18-years/. Accessed May 20, 2018.
Ekpebu, L. (2008). The state, oil companies and the Niger Delta. In Conference proceedings from the international conference on the Nigerian State, oil industry and the Niger Delta held at the department of political science, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State between 11th and 13th March. Port Harcourt: Harey Publications Company.
Ewetan, O. O. (2012). Fiscal federalism in Nigeria: Theory and practice. International Journal of Development and Sustainability,1(3), 1075–1087.
Ezirim, G. E. (2018). Oil crimes, national security, and the Nigerian state, 1999 − 2015. Japanese Journal of Political Science,19(1), 80–100. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1468109917000238.
FGN (Federal Government of Nigeria). (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (as amended). Abuja: Government Printers.
Fyneface, F. D., & Akhigbe, L. (2014). Still polluted: Monitoring government and Shell’s response to UNEP’s environmental assessment of Ogoniland. Port Harcourt: Social Development Integrated Centre.
Higgins, K. (2009). Regional inequality and the Niger Delta. Overseas Development Institute Policy Brief No 5. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/3383.pdf. Accessed July 22, 2017.
Howes, M., McKenzie, M., Gleeson, B., Gray, R., Byrne, J., & Daniels, P. (2010). Adapting ecological modernisation to the Australian context. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 7(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438150903478597.
Huber, J. (2000). Towards industrial ecology: Sustainable development as a concept of ecological modernization. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning,2(4), 269–285.
Human Rights Watch. (1999). The price of oil: Corporate responsibility and human rights violations in Nigeria’s oil producing communities. HRW Index No. 1-56432-225-4. New York: Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/nigeria/nigeria0199.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2015.
Human Rights Watch. (2007). Chop fine: The human rights impact of local government corruption and mismanagement in Rivers State, Nigeria. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2007/nigeria0107/nigeria0107web.pdf. Accessed October 4, 2015.
Iheamnachor, D. (2017). Ogoni clean-up: FG launches soil mgt centre, engages 1,200 women. Vanguard, 17 February. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/02/ogoni-clean-fg-launches-soil-mgt-centre-engages-1200-women/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Ite, A. E., Ibok, U. J., Ite, M. U., & Petters, S. W. (2013). Petroleum exploration and production: Past and present environmental issues in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta. American Journal of Environmental Protection,1(4), 78–90.
Kalejaye, K. (2015a). Nigeria hit by 1,879 cases of oil spill in 2 years—NOSDRA. Sweet Crude report, 22 October. http://sweetcrudereports.com/2015/10/21/nigeria-hit-by-1879-cases-of-oil-spill-in-2-years-nosdra/. Accessed July 22, 2017.
Kalejaye, K. (2015b). Nigeria records 9,343 oil spills incidents in 10 years. Sweet Crude report, 3 September. http://sweetcrudereports.com/2015/09/02/nigeria-records-9343-oil-spill-incidents-in-10-years/. Accessed July 22, 2017.
Konne, B. R. (2014). Inadequate monitoring and enforcement in the Nigerian oil industry: The case of Shell and Ogoniland. Cornell International Law Journal,47(1), 181–204.
Lawrence, K. S., & Abrutyn, S. B. (2015). The degradation of nature and the growth of environmental concern: Toward a theory of the capture and limits of ecological value. Human Ecology Review,21(1), 87–108.
Lidskog, R., & Elander, I. (2012). Ecological modernization in practice? The case of sustainable development in Sweden. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning,14(4), 411–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2012.737234.
Linden, O., & Palsson, J. (2013). Oil contamination I Ogoniland, Niger Delta. Ambio,42(6), 685–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-013-0412-8.
Manby, B. (1999). The price of oil: Corporate responsibility and human rights violations in Nigeria’s oil producing communities. New York: Human Rights Watch.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2012). Nigeria poverty profile 2010. http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfuploads/Nigeria%20Poverty%20Profile%202010.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2015.
New Telegraph. (2017). HYPREP rallies Ogoni communities for clean-up. New Telegraph, 21 November. https://newtelegraphonline.com/2017/11/hyprep-rallies-ogoni-communities-clean/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Nkpaa, K. W., Amadi, B. A., & Wegwu, M. O. (2017). Trace elements levels in drinking water from Gokana, Ogoniland, River State, Nigeria. International Journal of Hydrology,1(2), 55–57.
Nwabughiogu, L. (2016). Ogoni clean up governing board, BoT: See full list of Buhari’s appointees. Vanguard, 5 August. http://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/ogoni-clean-up-governing-board-bot-see-full-list-of-buharis-appointees/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Nwisi, R. (2018). NGOs, others seek NOSDRA Act’s amendment. Nation, 23 February. http://thenationonlineng.net/ngos-others-seek-nosdra-acts-amendment/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Obi, C. I. (2010). Oil extraction, dispossession, resistance, and conflict in Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta. Canadian Journal of Development Studies,30(1–2), 219–236.
Okeke, C. C. (2017). Ogoni cleanup: Council appoints Dekil project coordinator. Daily trust, 14 January. https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/news/general/ogoniland-cleanup-council-appoints-dekil-project-coordinator/180633.html. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Okere, R. (2018). Nigeria loses N63.778tr to oil production halt in Ogoni. Guardian, 02 April. https://guardian.ng/news/nigeria-loses-n63-778tr-to-oil-production-halt-in-ogoni/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Okonta, I., & Douglas, O. (2003). Where vultures feast: Shell, human rights and oil. London: Verso.
Omagu, O. O. (2011). Oil multinationals: ‘environmental genocide’ and socioeconomic development in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. In T. Falola & A. Paddock (Eds.), Environment and economics in Nigeria (pp. 107–124). New York: Routledge.
Omotoso, F. (2010). Nigerian fiscal federalism and revenue allocation formula for sustainable development in Niger Delta. The Social Sciences,5(3), 246–253.
Omoweh, D. A. (2010) Political economy of natural resource struggle in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. 33rd public lecture series, April 16th. Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria. http://eprints.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/9531/1/33rd%20Public%20Lecture-1.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2015.
Orogun, P. S. (2010). Resource control, revenue allocation and petroleum politics in Nigeria: The Niger Delta question. GeoJournal,75(5), 459–507.
Pegg, S., & Zabbey, N. (2013). Oil and water: The Bodo spills and the destruction of traditional livelihood structures in the Niger Delta. Community Development Journal,48(3), 391–405.
People’s Daily. (2017). Ogoniland clean-up yet to commence, five years after UNEP report. http://www.peoplesdailyng.com/ogoniland-clean-up-yet-to-commence-five-years-after-unep-report/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Raji, A. Y., & Abejide, T. S. (2013). Shell D’Arcy exploration & the discovery of oil as important foreign exchange earnings in Ijawland of Niger Delta, C. 1940s–1970s. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (OMAN Chapter),2(11), 22–33.
Saro-Wiwa, K. (1995). A month and a day: A detention diary. London: Penguin Books.
Simonis, U. E. (1987). Ecological modernisation: New perspectives for industrial societies, Friedrich Ebert Foundation, New Delhi. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/112260/1/205797.pdf. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Social Action. (2016). Policy options for addressing artisanal crude oil refineries and pollution in Nigeria. Briefing No. 12. http://saction.org/books/SA_Briefing_12.pdf. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Soja, E. W. (2010). Seeking spatial justice. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Sonnenfeld, D. A. (2000). Contradictions of ecological modernisation: Pulp and paper manufacturing in south-east Asia. In A. P. J. Mol & D. A. Sonnenfeld (Eds.), Ecological modernisation around the world: Perspectives and critical debates (pp. 235–256). London: FrankCass.
Spaargaren, G., & Mol, A. P. J. (2008). Greening global consumption: Redefining politics and authority. Global Environmental Change,18(3), 350–359.
SPDC. (n.d). Shell in Nigeria: Ogoniland. https://www.shell.com.ng/media/nigeria-reports-and-publications-briefing-notes/ogoniland/_jcr_content/par/toptasks.stream/1523110625544/fdae70431cde2d33edaa7bf3da816db3463081236998c36e0e39df06b8af955a/ogoniland.pdf. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Steyn, P. (2009). Oil exploration in colonial Nigeria, c. 1903–58. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,37(2), 249–274.
The Fund for Peace. (2017). Ogoniland: Remediating a troubled region. Conflict Briefing. http://library.fundforpeace.org/library/501011708-ogoniland.pdf. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Tyagi, S., Garg, N., & Paudel, R. (2014). Environmental degradation: Causes and consequences. European Researcher, 81(8–2), 1491–1498. https://doi.org/10.13187/er.2014.81.1491.
Udoma, M. (2018). Why NOSDRA Act amendment is necessary—DG. Sweet Crude report, 20 April. http://sweetcrudereports.com/2018/04/20/why-nosdra-act-amendment-is-necessary-dg/. Accessed May 22, 2018.
Ukiwo, U. (2007). From “pirates” to “militants: A historical perspective on anti-state and anti-oil company mobilization among the Ijaw of Warri, Western Niger Delta. African Affairs,106(425), 587–610.
Umoru, H. (2012). Nigeria has highest oil spill in the world—Senate. Vanguard, 14 November. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/11/nigeria-has-highest-oil-spill-in-the-world-senate/ Accessed October 20, 2017.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2006). Niger Delta human development report. Abuja: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/nigeria_hdr_report.pdf. Accessed October 4, 2015.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2011). Environmental assessment of Ogoniland. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/OEA/UNEP_OEA.pdf. Accessed October 4, 2015.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2016). Nigeria launches $1 billion Ogoniland clean-up and restoration programme. http://www.unep.org/newscentre/nigeria-launches-1-billion-ogoniland-clean-and-restoration-programme. Accessed July 22, 2017.
Watts, M. (2004). Resource curse? Governmentality, oil and power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Geopolitics,9(1), 50–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040412331307832.
World Bank. (1995). Defining an environmental development strategy for the Niger Delta. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/974591468096855814/pdf/multi-page.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2015.
Yakubu, O. H. (2017). Addressing environmental health problems in Ogoniland through implementation of United Nations Environment Program Recommendations: Environmental management strategies. Environments,4(28), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments4020028.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares no potential conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nwozor, A. Depoliticizing environmental degradation: revisiting the UNEP environmental assessment of Ogoniland in Nigeria’s Niger Delta region. GeoJournal 85, 883–900 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-09997-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-09997-x