Abstract
Rainfall-induced landslide masses often change into disastrous debris flows and damage large areas in Nepal’s mountainous region. The area covered by debris flow inundation or debris flow runout is a most essential component for landslide hazard assessments leading to development of land use plans. However, there is presently no tool that can allow to assess and predict debris flow runout from the initial landslide on the watershed scale in Nepal. In this paper, a method and simulation tool are developed for the assessment and prediction of debris flow runout in Kulekhani Watershed, Nepal. The Flow-R model with user-defined landslide-susceptible areas was chosen for debris flow runout analysis. The Flow-R model with various algorithms has the capability to analyze debris flow inundation with limited input information. Two recent debris flow events are taken as case studies to identify the appropriate algorithms for runout analysis of the study area. After comparison of the observed and simulated results for debris flow runout, the algorithms proposed by Holmgren (Hydrol Process 8:327–334, 1994) (modified) are found suitable for the study watershed. These algorithms are employed for debris flow inundation analysis in the study area with pre-defined landslide sources plus debris flow inundation map in GIS environment. The results obtained from this modeling for the debris flow area induced by 540 mm of rainfall in 24 h period was 2.68% of the watershed, which is comparable to previously observed debris flow area in the study watershed. The findings of this research and GIS simulation tool developed will enable the optimization of planning and investment for land development in the studied region.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bhandary NP, Yatabe R, Dahal RK, Hasegawa S, Inagaki H (2013) Areal distribution of large-scale landslides along highway corridors in central Nepal. Georisk Assess Manag Risk Eng Syst Geohazards 7:31
Bijukchhen SM, Kayastha P, Dhital MR (2012) A comparative evaluation of heuristic and bivariate statistical modelling for landslide susceptibility mappings in Ghurmi-Dhad Khola, East Nepal. Arab J Geosci 6:2727–2743
Cannon SH, Ellen SD (1988) Rainfall that resulted in abundant debris-flow activity during the storm. In: Ellen SD, Wieczorek GF (eds) Landslides, floods, and marine effects of the storm of January 3–5, 1982, in the San Francisco Bay area. U.S.G.S, Reston, pp 27–34
Carrara A, Crosta G, Frattini P (2008) Comparing models of debris-flow susceptibility in the alpine environment. Geomorphology 94:353–378
Claessens L, Heuvelink GBM, Schoorl JM, Veldkamp A (2005) DEM resolution effects on shallow landslide hazard and soil redistribution modelling. Earth Surf Proc Land 30:461–477
Corominas J (1996) The angle of reach as a mobility index for small and large landslides. Can Geotech J 33:260–271
Crosta GB, Cucchiaro S, Frattini P (2002) Determination of the inundation area for debris flow through semi-empirical equations. In: mediterranean storms proceedings of the 4th EGS Plinius conference, Spain Universitat de les Illes Balears
Crosta G, Cucchiaro S, Frattini P (2003) Validation of semi-empirical relationships for the defi nition of debris-fl ow behavior in granular materials. In: Rickenmann D, Chen C (eds) Debris-flow hazards mitigation: mechanics, prediction, and assessment. Millpress, Rotterdam, pp 821–832
Dahal RJ, Hasegawa S, Bhandary NP, Poudel PP, Nonomura A, Yatabe R (2012) A replication of landslide hazard mapping at catchment scale. Geomatics, Nat Hazards Risk 3(2):161–192
Dahal RK, Hasegawa S (2008) Representative rainfall thresholds for landslides in the Nepal Himalaya. Geomorphology 100(3–4):429–443
Dahal RK, Hasegawa S, Nonomura A, Yamanaka M, Dhakal S, Paudyal P (2008) Predictive modelling of rainfall-induced landslide hazard in the lesser Himalaya of Nepal based on weights-of-evidence. Geomorphology 102(3–4):496–510
Dahal RK, Hasegawa S, Masuda T, Yamanaka M (2006) Roadside slope failures in Nepal during torrential rainfall and their mitigation. Universal Academy Press, Inc, Tokyo, Japan, pp 503–514
Dai FC, Lee CF, Nagi YY (2002) Landslide risk assessment and management: an overview. Eng Geol 64:65–87
Desmet PJJ, Govers G (1996) Comparison of routing algorithms for digital elevation models and their implications for predicting ephemeral gullies. Int J Geogr Inf Syst 10:311–331
Devkota KC, Regmi AD, Pourghasemi HR, Yoshida K, Pradhan B, Ryu IC, Dhital MR, Althuwaynee OF (2013) Landslide susceptibility mapping using certainty factor, index of entropy and logistic regression model in GIS and their comparison at Mugling-Narayanghat road section in Nepal Himalaya. Nat Hazards 65:135–165
Dhital MR, Khanal N, Thapa KB (1993) The role of extreme weather events, mass movements, and land use changes in increasing natural hazards. A Report of the preliminary field assessment and workshop on causes of recent damage incurred in southcentral Nepal, July 19-20 1993. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, pp. 123
Dhital MR (2003) Causes and consequences of the 1993 debris flows and landslides in the Kulekhani watershed, central Nepal. In: Rickenmann D, Chen C (eds) Debris-flow hazards mitigation: mechanics, prediction and assessment. Millpress, Rotterdam, pp 1931–1943
Endreny TA, Wood EF (2003) Maximizing spatial congruence of observed and DEM-delineated overland flow networks. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 17:699–713
Erskine R, Green T, Ramirez J, MacDonald L (2006) Comparison of grid-based algorithms for computing upslope contributing area. Water Resour Res 42:W09416
Fairfield J, Leymarie P (1991) Drainage networks from grid digital elevation models. Water Resour Res 27:709–717
Fannin RJ, Wise MP (2001) An empirical-statistical model for debris flow travel distance. Can Geotech J 38:982–994
Finlay PJ, Mostyn GR, Fell R (1999) Landslide risk assessment prediction of travel distance. Can Geotech J 36:556–562
Freeman TG (1991) Calculating catchment area with divergent flow based on a regular grid. Comput Geosci 17:413–422
Fredlund DG, Xing AE (1994) Equation for the soil-water characteristic curve. Can Geotech J 31:521–532
Gabet EJ, Burbank D, Putkonen JK, Pratt-Sitaula BA, Ojha T (2004) Rainfall thresholds for landsliding in the Himalayas of Nepal. Geomorphology 63:131–143
Gamma P (2000) dfwalk – Ein Murgang-Simulationsprogramm zur Gefahrenzonierung, Geographisches Institut der Universit¨at Bern, (in German)
Griswold JP (2004) Mobility statistics and hazard mapping for nonvolcanic debris-flows and rock avalanches. Master Thesis, Portland State University, Portland, OR
Griswold JP, Iverson RM (2008) Mobility statistics and automated hazard mapping for debris-flows and rock avalanches. US geological survey scientific investigations Report 5276. US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, 59
Hagen T (1969) Report on the geological survey of Nepal preliminary reconnaissance. Zürich Mémoires de la soc. Helvétique des sci. naturelles, pp185
Hasegawa S, Dahal RK, Yamanaka M, Bhandari NP, Yatabe R, Inagaki H (2009) Causes of large landslides in the Lesser Himalaya of central Nepal. Environ Geol 57:1423–1434
Holmgren P (1994) Multiple flow direction algorithms for runoff modelling in grid based elevation models: an empirical evaluation. Hydrol Process 8:327–334
Horton P, Jaboyedoff M, Rudaz B, Zimmermann M (2013) Flow-R, a model for susceptibility mapping of debris flows and other gravitational hazards at a regional scale. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 13:869–885
Horton P, Jaboyedoff M, Bardou E (2008) Debris flow susceptibility mapping at a regional scale. In: proceedings of the 4th Canadian conference on geohazards, edited by: Locat J, Perret D, Turmel D, Demers D, and Leroueil S, Qu´ebec, Canada, 20–24 May, pp. 339–406
Hungr O (1995) A model for the runout analysis of rapid flow slides, debris flows, and avalanches. Can Geotech J 32:610–623
Hungr O, Morgenstern NR (1984) Experiments on the flow behavior of granular materials at high velocity in an open channel. Geotechnique 34(3):405–413
Hutter K, Svendsen B, Rickenmann D (1996) Debris flow modeling: a review. Continuum Mech Thermodyn 8:1–35
Hunter G, Fell R (2003) Travel distance angle for ‘rapid’ landslides in constructed and natural soil slopes. Can Geotech J 40(6):1123–1141
Iverson RM (1997) The physics of debris flow. Rev Geophys 35(3):245–296
Iverson RM, Schilling SP, Vallance JW (1998) Objective delineation of lahar-inundation hazard zones. GSA Bull 110(8):972–984
Jaboyedoff M, Rudaz B, Horton P (2011) Concepts and parameterization of Perla and FLM model using Flow-R for debris flow. In: proceedings of the 5th Canadian conference on geotechnique and natural hazards, 15–17, Kelowna, BC, Canada
Jenson SK, Dominque JO (1988) Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis. Photogramm Eng Rem S 54:1593–1600
Jha BK, Dhital MR, Dwibedi S, Banskota N, Amatya SC (2014) Nepal Government Ministry of Irrigation. Report on Jure Landslide, Mankha VDC, Sindhupalchowk District, http://dpnet.org.np/index.php?pageName=activities
Johnson A, Rodine JR (1984) Debris flow. In: Brundsden D, Prior DB (eds) Slope instability. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 257–361
Johnson KA, Sitar N (1990) Hydrologic conditions leading to debris flow initiation. Canadian Geotech J 27:789–801
Kayastha P, Dhital MR, Smedt FD (2013) Evaluation and comparison of GIS based landslide susceptibility mapping procedures in Kulekhani watershhed. Nepal J Gelo Soc India v81:219–231
Kayastha P, Dhital MR, Smedt FD (2012) Landslide susceptibility mapping using the weight of evidence method in the Tinau Watershed. Nepal Nat Hazards 63:479–498
Kayastha P, De Smedt F, Dhital MR (2010) GIS based landslide susceptibility assessment in Nepal Himalaya: a comparison of heuristic and statistical bivariate analysis. In: Malet JP, Glade T, Casagli N (eds) Mountain risks: bringing science to society. CERG, New Delhi, pp 121–128
Koerner HJ (1976) Reichweite und Geschwindigkeit von Bergsturzen und fleisschneelawinen. Rock Mech 8:225–256
Lamichhanne SP (2000) Engineering geological watershed management studies in the Kulekhani watershed, M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan, University, Nepal.
Legros F (2002) The mobility of long-runout landslide. Eng Geol 63:301–331
Li AG, Yue ZQ, Tham LG, Lee CF, Law KT (2004) Field monitored variation of soil moisture and matric suction in a saprolite slope. Can Geotech J 42:13–26
Nippon Koei Co. Ltd (2008) The study on disaster risk management for Narayangharh-Muglung Highway, Interim Report
O’Callaghan JF, Mark DM (1984) Extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data. Comput Vis Gr Image process 20:323–344
Pastor M, Herreros I, Fernandez Merodo JA, Mira P, Haddad B, Quecedo M, Gonzalez E, Alvearez-Cedron C, Drempetic V (2009) Modelling of fast catastropic landsides and impulse wave induced by them in fjords, lakes and reservoirs. Eng Geol 109:124–134s
Paudel B (2018) GIS-based assessment of debris flow susceptibility and hazard in mountainous regions of Nepal. PhD dissertation, University of Ottawa, p. 232
Perla R, Cheng TT, McClung DM (1980) A two-parameter model of snow-avalanche motion. J Glaciol 26:197–207
Petley D, Hearn GJ, Hart A (2007) Trends in landslide occurrence in Nepal. Nat Hazards 43:23–44
Pierson TC (2005) Hyperconcentrated flow-transitional process between water flow and debris flow. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, pp 159–202
Pudasaini SP (2011) Some exact solutions for debris and avalanche flows. Phys Fluids 23(4):043301. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3570532
Quinn P, Beven K, Chevallier P, Planchon O (1991) The prediction of hillslope flow paths for distributed hydrological modelling using digital terrain models. Hydrol Process 5:59–79
Regmi MK (2002) Geology of Kulekhani watershed in central Nepal with special reference to landslides and weathering. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
Rickenmann D (1999) Empirical relationships for debris flows. Nat Hazards 19:47–77
Rickenmann D (2005) Runout prediction methods. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris flow hazards and related phenomena. Springer, Berlin, pp 305–324
Sassa K, Wang G (2005) Mechanism of landslide-triggered debris flows: Liquefaction phenomena due to the undrained loading of torrent deposits. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, pp 81–104
Savage WZ, Baum RL (2005) Instability of steep slopes, Chapter 4. In: Jacob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Praxis Publishing House and Springer, Chichester, U.K., pp 53–79
Sidle RC, Swanston DN (1982) Analysis of a small debris slide in coastal Alaska. Can Geotech J 19(2):167–174
Singh M (2014) Geotechnical investigation of Madi landslide dam, Nepal, http://undergroundwaterresources.com/author/ms1573163gmail-com
Tarboton DG (1997) A new method for the determination of flow directions and upslope areas in grid digital elevation models. Water Resour Res 33:309–319
Torres GH (2011) Estimating the soil-water characteristics curve using grain-size analysis and plasticity index. M.Sc. Thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
Upreti BN, Dhital MR (1996) Landslide studies and management in Nepal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, p 87p
Voellmy A (1955) Uber die Zerstorungskraft von Lawinen Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Jahrg 73. Heft 12, 159–162, 15, 212–217, 17, 246–249, 19, 280–285
Wang C, Li S, Esak T (2008) GIS-based two-dimensional numerical simulation of rainfall-induced debris flow. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 8:47–58
Yagi H (2001) Landslide study using aerial photographs, Landslide hazard mitigation in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. In: Tianchi L, Chalise SR, Upreti BN (eds) Landslide hazard mitigation in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas. ICIMOD, Nepal, p 79
Yagi H, Nakamura S (1995) Hazard mapping on large scale landslides in the lower Nepal Himalayas. In: proceedings of international seminar on water induced disasters (ISWID-1995), DPTC-JICA, Kathmandu, Nepal, 162–168
Zimmermann M, Mani P, Gamma P (1997) Murganggefahr und Klima¨anderung—ein GIS-basierter Ansatz, NFP 31 Schlussbericht, Hochschulverlag an der ETH, Z¨urich. (in German)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paudel, B., Fall, M. & Daneshfar, B. Gis-Based Assessment of Debris Flow Runout in Kulekhani Watershed, Nepal. Geotech Geol Eng 39, 2755–2775 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01655-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01655-1