Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Why Childless Men and Women Give Up on Having Children

  • Published:
European Journal of Population Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this paper we address the question why childless women and men aged 35 years and older, who originally were considering having children, voluntarily gave up on having children. We hypothesise that this adjustment could be attributed to five mechanisms: adaptation to a lifestyle without children; resignation because of severe hindrances to having children; approaching the end of the fecund period; perceiving a low degree of social influence from significant others to have children; and a low degree of personal persistence in pursuing life goals. We analyse data from the first six waves of the German Family Panel (Pairfam) and employ multinomial logistic regression models. As the dependent variable we distinguished four types of sequences over the observation period: “permanently considering having children”, “given up on having children”, “switching”, and “permanently not considering having children”. Being female, being not employed, and having low scores on the emotional autonomy scale increased the likelihood of giving up on having children, while anticipating positive consequences of parenthood and perceiving influence from parents to have a child decreased it. The results show that all mechanisms addressed by the hypotheses were at work to a certain extent. In particular, the integration of personality factors and the importance of other life goals beyond parenthood provided valuable insights into the reasons for giving up on having children. Future research in this field should focus more than was possible in our study on societal age norms and the role of partners in giving up on having children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The German Family Panel is coordinated by Josef Brüderl, Karsten Hank, Johannes Huinink, Bernhard Nauck, Franz Neyer, and Sabine Walper (Brüderl et al. 2015). It is funded as a long-term project by the German Research Foundation (DFG). A detailed description of the study can be found in Huinink et al. (2011). For further information about the sampling procedure, the response rates, and the instruments see the pairfam website (www.pairfam.de).

  2. The exact definitions of the types are shown in Table A1 in the Online Appendix. A similar approach was chosen by Heaton et al. (1999) based on two waves (1988 and 1994) from the National Survey of Families and Households in the USA.

  3. The item is intended to measure the abstract importance of a partnership for persons with and without a current partner. However, we cannot exclude that respondents with a partner evaluated the importance of their own present partnerships.

  4. The three other life goals were “pursuing my education or career interests”, “keeping in touch with friends”, and “having a (another) child”.

  5. The results of the sub-models including control variables are displayed in Table A2 in the Online Appendix.

  6. In the statistical community there is controversy and no clear recommendation whether and how to use weights in multivariate regression models (see, e.g. Winship and Radbill 1994; Gelman 2007). We decided to present the unweighted estimates, which can be justified by the fact that important variables accounting for selective non-response (especially gender, education, employment status, and region) are included in the model. The relative risk ratios of the model with weighted data are similar. The standard errors, however, are higher.

References

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, F., Bulatao, R. A., Buripakdi, C., Chung, B. J., Fawcett, J. T., Iritani, T., et al. (1975). The value of children. A cross-national study. Honolulu: East-West Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avison, M., & Furnham, A. (2015). Personality and voluntary childlessness. Journal of Population Research, 32(1), 45–67. doi:10.1007/s12546-014-9140-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balbo, N., Billari, F. C., & Mills, M. M. (2013). Fertility in advanced societies: A review of research. European Journal of Population, 29, 1–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, G., & Kneip, T. (2012). Fertility from a couple perspective: A test of competing decision rules on proceptive behaviour. European Sociological Review, 29(3), 535–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardi, L., & Klärner, A. (2014). Social networks and fertility. Demographic Research, 30(22), 641–670. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2014.30.22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berrington, A. (2004). Perpetual postponers? Women’s, men’s and couple’s fertility intentions and subsequent fertility behaviour. Population Trends, 117, 9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhrolcháin, M. N., & Beaujouan, E. (2015). How real are reproductive goals? Uncertainty and the construction of fertility preferences. Southhampton: ESRC Centre for Population Research. (working paper 73).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandtstädter, J. (2009). Goal pursuit and goal adjustment: Self-regulation and intentional self-development in changing developmental contexts. Advances in Life Course Research, 14(1–2), 52–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandtstädter, J., & Renner, G. (1990). Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping. Psychology and Aging, 5(1), 58–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brüderl, J., Hank, K., Huinink, J., Nauck, B., Neyer, F.-J., Walper, S., Alt, P., Buhr, P., Castiglioni, L., Finn, C., Hajek, K., Herzig, M., Huyer-May, B., Lenke, R.; Müller, B.; Peter, T., Salzburger, V., Schmiedeberg, C., Schubach, E., Schütze, P., Schumann, N., Thönnissen, C., & Wilhelm, B. (2015). The German Family Panel (pairfam). GESIS data archive, Cologne. ZA5678 Data file Version 6.0.0, doi:10.4232/pairfam.5678.6.0.0.

  • Buhr, P., & Huinink, J. (2014a). Fertility analysis from a life course perspective. Advances in Life Course Research, 21, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhr, P., & Huinink, J. (Eds.). (2014b). Fertility over the life course (Advances in Life Course Research, 21, Special Issue). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhr, P., & Huinink, J. (2015). The German low fertility: How we got there and what we can expect for the future. European Sociological Review, 31, 197–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhr, P., Huinink, J., Boehnke, M., & Maul, K. (2011). Kinder oder keine? Institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen und biographische Voraussetzungen für die Familiengründung und -erweiterung in Ost- und Westdeutschland. In J. Brüderl, L. Castiglioni, & N. Schumann (Eds.), Partnerschaft, Fertilität und intergenerationale Beziehungen: Ergebnisse der ersten Welle des Beziehungs- und Familienpanels (pp. 175–202). Würzburg: Ergon Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhr, P., & Kuhnt, A.-K. (2012). Die kurzfristige Stabilität des Kinderwunsches von Kinderlosen in Ost- und Westdeutschland: Eine Analyse mit den ersten beiden Wellen des deutschen Beziehungs- und Familienpanels. In J. Huinink, M. Kreyenfeld, & H. Trappe (Eds.), Familie und Partnerschaft in Ost- und Westdeutschland (Sonderheft Zeitschrift für Familienforschung/Journal of Family Research, 9) (pp. 275–297). Berlin: Barbara Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J. (1984). Voluntary childlessness: Early articulator and postponing couples. Journal of Biosocial Science, 16(4), 501–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmichael, G. (2013). Decisions to have children in late 20th and early 21st century Australia: A qualitative analysis. Dordrecht: Springer Briefs in Population Studies.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Carmichael, G. A., & Whittaker, A. (2007). Choice and circumstance: Qualitative insights into contemporary childlessness in Australia. European Journal of Population, 23, 111–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diewald, M. (2012). Bedürfnisse und Präferenzen Kompensations- und Substitutionsmöglichkeiten dialogischer Beziehungen. In P. Buhr & M. Feldhaus (Eds.), Die notwendige Vielfalt von Familie und Partnerschaft (pp. 41–59). Ergon: Würzburg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorbritz, J. (2008). Germany: Family diversity with low actual and desired fertility. In T. Frejka, T. Sobotka, J. M. Hoem, & L. Toulemon (Eds.), Childbearing trends and policies in Europe (pp. 557–597). Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiori, F., Rinesi, F., & Graham, E. (2017). Choosing to remain childless? A comparative study of fertility intentions among women and men in Italy. European Journal of Population (online). doi:10.1007/s10680-016-9404-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, A. (2007). Struggles with survey weighting and regression modeling. Statistical Science, 22(2), 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • González, M.-J., & Jurado-Guerrero, T. (2006). Remaining childless in affluent economies: A comparison of France, West Germany, Italy and Spain, 1994–2001. European Journal of Population, 22, 317–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, E., Evans, A., & Reimondos, A. (2013). Childbearing desires of childless men and women: When are goals adjusted? Advances in Life Course Research, 18, 141–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, T. B., Jacobson, C. K., & Holland, K. (1999). Persistence and change in decisions to remain childless. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(2), 531–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J. (1997). Developmental regulation across adulthood: Primary and secondary control of age-related challenges. Developmental Psychology, 33(1), 176–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102(2), 284–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Fleeson, W. (2001). Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: The sample case of “biological clock” for childbearing. Psychology and Aging, 16(3), 400–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heiland, F., Prskawetz, A., & Sanderson, W. C. (2008). Are individuals’ desired family sizes stable? Evidence from West German panel data. European Journal of Population, 24(2), 129–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. W., & Hoffman, M. L. (1973). The value of children to parents. In J. T. Fawcett (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on population (pp. 19–76). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland, J. A., & Keizer, R. (2015). Family attitudes and fertility timing in Sweden. European Journal of Population, 31, 259–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huinink, J., Brüderl, J., Nauck, B., Walper, S., Castiglioni, L., & Feldhaus, M. (2011). Panel analysis of intimate relationships and family dynamics (pairfam): Conceptual framework and design. Zeitschrift für Familienforschung, 23(1), 77–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huinink, J., & Feldhaus, M. (2009). Family research from the life course perspective. International Sociology, 24(3), 299–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huinink, J., & Kohli, M. (2014). A life-course approach to fertility. Demographic Research, 30(45), 1293–1326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huinink, J., & Kreyenfeld, M. (2006). Family formation in times of abrupt social and economic change. In M. Diewald, A. Goedicke, & K.-U. Mayer (Eds.), After the fall of the wall: Life courses in the transformation of East Germany (pp. 170–190). Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Iacovou, M., & Tavares, L. P. (2011). Yearning, learning and conceding: Reasons men and women change their childbearing intentions. Population and Development Review, 37(1), 89–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keizer, R., Dykstra, P. A., & Jansen, M. D. (2008). Pathways into childlessness. Evidence of gendered life course dynamics. Journal of Biosocial Science, 40, 863–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • König, W., Lüttinger, P., & Müller, W. (1988). A comparative analysis of the development and structure of educational systems. Methodological foundations and the construction of a comparative educational scale. Mannheim: CASMIN-Project, Universität Mannheim, Institut für Sozialwissenschaften. (CASMIN Working paper, 12).

  • Kreyenfeld, M., & Konietzka, D. (Eds.). (2017a). Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, causes, and consequences. Springer Open. Demographic Research Monographs. A Series of the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44667-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreyenfeld, M., & Konietzka, D. (Eds.). (2017b). Childlessness in East and West Germany: Long-term trends and social disparities. In Childlessness in Europe contexts causes and consequences (pp. 97–114). Springer Open. Demographic Research Monographs. A Series of the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44667-7.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhnt, A.-K., & Buhr, P. (2016). Biographical risks and their impact on uncertainty in fertility expectations. A gender-specific study based on the German Family Panel. Duisburg: Institut für Soziologie, Universität Duisburg-Essen. (Duisburger Beiträge zur soziologischen Forschung 2016-03). doi:10.6104/DBsF-2016-03.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liefbroer, A. (2009). Changes in family size intentions across young adulthood: A life-course perspective. European Journal of Population, 25(4), 363–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, K. (2014). Compensating dissatisfaction in the job by turning to the family? The impact of current occupation on timing of first births in Germany. Advances in Life Course Research, 21, 43–58. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2014.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B., & Pasta, D. J. (2005). Couple disagreement: Effects on the formation and implementation of fertility decisions. Personal Relationships, 3(3), 307–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, S. P. (1981). Intention and uncertainty at later stages of childbearing: The United States 1965 and 1970. Demography, 18(3), 267–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, S. P., & Rackin, H. (2010). The correspondence between fertility intentions and behavior in the United States. Population and Development Review, 36(1), 91–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mynarska, M., Matysiak, A., Rybinska, A., Tocchioni, V., & Vignoli, D. (2015). Diverse paths into childlessness over the life course. Advances in Life Course Research, 25, 35–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nauck, B. (2007). Value of children and the framing of fertility: Results from a cross-cultural comparative survey in 10 societies. European Sociological Review, 23(5), 615–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nave-Herz, R. (1988). Kinderlose Ehen. Eine empirische Studie über die Lebenssituation kinderloser Ehepaare und die Gründe für ihre Kinderlosigkeit. Weinheim und München: Juventa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieschlag, E., & te Velde, E. (2010). Why have birth rates dropped? For medical reasons? Journal für Reproduktionsmedizin und Endokrinologie—Journal of Reproductive Medicine and Endocrinology, 7(5), 403–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noom, M. J., Dekovic, M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (1999). Autonomy, attachment and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence: A double-edged sword? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 771–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, H., & Engwall, K. (2016). Missing out on the parenthood bonus? Voluntarily childless in a “childfriendly” society. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 37(4), 540–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philipov, D., & Bernardi, L. (2011). Konzepte und Operationalisierung von reproduktiven Entscheidungen am Beispiel Österreichs, Deutschlands und der Schweiz. Zeitschrift für Bevölkerungswissenschaft—Comparative Population Studies, 36(2–3), 531–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rindfuss, R. R., Bumpass, L., & St. John, C. (1980). Education and fertility: Implications for the roles women occupy. American Sociological Review, 45(3), 431–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Safer, J. (1996). Beyond motherhood. Choosing a life without children. New York: Pocket Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanturri, M. L., & Mencarini, L. (2008). Childless or childfree? Paths to voluntary childlessness in Italy. Population and Development Review, 34(1), 51–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Testa, M. R. (2014). On the positive correlation between education and fertility intentions in Europe: Individual- and country-level evidence. Advances in Life Course Research, 21, 28–42. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2014.01.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veevers, J. E. (1973). Voluntarily childless wives: An exploratory study. Sociology and Social Research, 57(3), 356–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winship, C., & Radbill, L. (1994). Sampling weights and regression analysis. Sociological Methods and Research, 23(2), 230–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., & Heckhausen, J. (2005). Being on-time or off-time: Developmental deadlines for regulating one’s own development. In A. N. Perret-Clermont (Ed.), Thinking time. A multidisciplinary perspective on time (pp. 110–123). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study uses data from the German Family Panel pairfam, coordinated by Josef Brüderl, Karsten Hank, Johannes Huinink, Bernhard Nauck, Franz Neyer, and Sabine Walper. The pairfam study is funded as long-term project by the German Research Foundation (DFG). The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful and constructive feedbacks.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Bremen, SOCIUM, Mary-Somerville-Straße 9, 28359, Bremen, Germany

    Petra Buhr & Johannes Huinink

Authors
  1. Petra Buhr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Johannes Huinink
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Petra Buhr.

Ethics declarations

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Compliance with ethical standards for German social research and data protection laws was secured throughout the study.

Conflict of interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 40 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Buhr, P., Huinink, J. Why Childless Men and Women Give Up on Having Children. Eur J Population 33, 585–606 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-017-9429-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-017-9429-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation