Abstract
This study examines the impact of an increasing water footprint on exacerbating water scarcity and the crisis in Isfahan province, Iran. It highlights the significance of considering the water footprint approach in water resource management. To achieve this goal, a comprehensive analysis of water availability limitations, population growth, the agricultural sector, and the industrial sector was conducted. The methodology employed for this research involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection approaches, including literature review and statistical data analysis. The findings of this study reveal that Isfahan province faces a significant water crisis due to an imbalance between water supply and demand. The limited renewable water resources in the region exacerbate the challenges associated with meeting the water demands of a continuously expanding population and human activities. The conclusions drawn from this research indicate that focusing on transferring water from adjacent basins as a solution for water scarcity, and even transferring more water if it is available in those basins, regardless of the increasing trend of the water footprint in the province, is not only an unsustainable solution, but also exacerbates the unsustainability of the source water transferred adjacent basins. Some recommendations to improve the water footprint approach in Isfahan province for long-term sustainability include raising awareness to reduce household water usage, promoting efficient irrigation and sustainable agricultural practices, implementing regulations, and encouraging the adoption of water-efficient technologies in the industrial sector. Collaborative efforts between the government, stakeholders, and the public, continued research and data monitoring.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Population data
The population data of Isfahan province obtained from Statistical Center of Iran yearbook and Isfahan municipality yearbook in different years, these websites are in Persian and the data is publicly available. Statistical Center of Iran available at: https://www.amar.org.ir/statistical-information.
Isfahan municipality yearbook (population part) is available at: https://plan.isfahan.ir/sites/default/files/statistics_content/23898/files/98-2.pdf.
Agriculture data
The data for agricultural products obtained from Statistical Center of Iran yearbook and Ministry of Agricultural Jihad and Organization of Agriculture Jihad of Isfahan province statistical yearbooks in different years.
Ministry of Agricultural Jihad Statistics available at: https://maj.ir/page-amar/FA/65/form/pId3352.
Organization of Agriculture Jihad of Isfahan province statistics available at: http://agri-es.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=1927.
Industrial data.
The data for industrial products obtained from Statistical Center of Iran yearbooks, Mobarakeh Steel Company, Zobahan (Steel) Company, Iranian Mines & Mining Industries Development & Renovation Organization (IMIDRO), National Iranian Steel Company (NISC), Isfahan Regional Electricity Company and Cement Scientific Monthly.
Electricity data.
The data for electricity obtained from Statistical Center of Iran yearbooks and Isfahan Regional Electrical Company, Available at: https://www.erec.co.ir/fa/history.aspx.
All data used in this paper obtained from official sources that are published and open to public access. The data are in Persian.
References
Allan, J. A. (1993). Fortunately there are substitutes for water otherwise our hydro-political futures would be impossible. Priorities for water resources allocation and management (pp. 13–26). ODA.
Asriran (2023, July 10). A 76-kilometer giant is speeding toward Kashan/Horrifying scenes from the largest subduction crack in Iran. [In Persian]. Retrieved July 29, 2023, from https://www.asriran.com/fa/news/897376/
Boretti, A., & Rosa, L. (2019). Reassessing the projections of the world water development report. NPJ Clean Water, 2(1), 15, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-019-0039-9
Cement Scientific Monthly (2021). Cement industry statistics. [In Persian]. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from http://www.cementechnology.ir/
Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2004). Water footprints of nations. Volume 1: Main Report (Vol. 16, pp. 1–80). UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. Value Water Research Report Serieshttps://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report16Vol1.pdf
Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2008). The global component of freshwater demand and supply: An assessment of virtual water flows between nations as a result of trade in agricultural and industrial products. Water International, 33(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060801927812
Chen, C. H., Wang, C. H., Hsu, Y. J., Yu, S. B., & Kuo, L. C. (2010). Correlation between groundwater level and altitude variations in land subsidence area of the Choshuichi Alluvial Fan, Taiwan. Engineering Geology, 115(1–2), 122–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.05.011
Ebrahimi, Z., Vali, A., Khosroshahi, M., & Ghazavi, R. (2017). Investigation of the role of bed dried Gavkhooni wetland on the production of the internal dust using remote sensing and duststorms (Case study: Isfahan province). Iranian Journal of Range and Desert Research, 24(1), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijrdr.2017.109857
Ercin, A. E., Aldaya, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). Corporate water footprint accounting and impact assessment: The case of the water footprint of a sugar-containing carbonated beverage. Water Resources Management, 25, 721–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-010-9723-8
Ercin, A. E., Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2013). Sustainability of national consumption from a water resources perspective: The case study for France. Ecological Economics, 88, 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.01.015
Falkenmark, M., Lundqvist, J., & Widstrand, C. (1989). Macro-scale water scarcity requires micro‐scale approaches: Aspects of vulnerability in semi‐arid development. Natural resources forum (Vol. 13, pp. 258–267). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 4.
FAO (2020, December 10). The State of Food and Agriculture 2020. Overcoming water challenges in agriculture. Rome. Retrieved December 10, 2022, from https://www.hydrology.nl/images/docs/alg/The_State_of_Food_and_Agriculture_2020.pdf
Fu, M., Guo, B., Wang, W., Wang, J., Zhao, L., & Wang, J. (2019). Comprehensive Assessment of Water Footprints and Water Scarcity pressure for main crops in Shandong Province, China. Sustainability, 11(7), 1856. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071856
Gleick, P. H. (2003). Global freshwater resources: Soft-path solutions for the 21st century. Science, 302(5650), 1524–1528. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089967
Gohari, A., Eslamian, S., Mirchi, A., Abedi-Koupaei, J., Bavani, A. M., & Madani, K. (2013). Water transfer as a solution to water shortage: A fix that can backfire. Journal of Hydrology, 491, 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.03.021
Hajian, N., & Hajian, P. (2015). Zayandeh Roud Reference Database. Publications of Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan branch. [In Persian].
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2007). Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern. Water Resources Management, 21(1), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2008). Globalization of water: Sharing the planet’s freshwater resources. Wiley.
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Hung, P. (2002). Virtual Water Trade: A quantification of virtual water flows between nations in relation to International Crop Trade (pp. 1–120). UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. Value of Water Research Report SeriesNo. 11http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report11.pdf
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Mekonnen, M. M. (2012). The water footprint of humanity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(9), 3232–3237. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109936109
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Wiedmann, T. O. (2014). Humanity’s unsustainable environmental footprint. Science, 344(6188), 1114–1117. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248365
Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K., Aldaya, M. M., & Mekonnen, M. M. (2009). Water footprint manual (pp. 1–131). Water footprint network. http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/WaterFootprintManual2009.pdf
Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K., Aldaya, M. M., & Mekonnen, M. M. (2011). The Water Footprint Assessment Manual: Setting the Global Standard. Routledge.
Hoekstra, A. Y., Mekonnen, M. M., Chapagain, A. K., Mathews, R. E., & Richter, B. D. (2012). Global monthly water scarcity: Blue water footprints versus blue water availability. PloS One, 7(2), e32688. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032688
Hosseinian, S. M., & Nezamoleslami, R. (2018). Water footprint and virtual water assessment in cement industry: A case study in Iran. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 2454–2463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.164
Hu, Y., Duan, W., Chen, Y., Zou, S., Kayumba, P. M., & Qin, J. (2022). Exploring the changes and driving forces of water footprint in Central Asia: A global trade assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 375, 134062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134062
Industry, & Mining and Trade Organization of Isfahan Province. (2020, July 13). Interview of Iraj Movafagh, the head of the Industry, Mining and Trade Organization of Isfahan Province. [In Persian]. Retrieved June 18, 2023, from https://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/7420983/
Iran Small Industries and Industrial Parks Organization (ISIPO) (2021). Statistics and information of towns and industrial areas. [In Persian]. Retrieved December 18, 2022, from http://gis.isipo.ir/
Iran Meteorological Organization (1966–2016). Meteorological Yearbook. [In Persian].
Iranian Ministry of Energy (2017, October 5). How much water do we consume with electricity consumption? [In Persian]. Retrieved December 14, 2022 from https://www.eghtesadonline.com/n/18KS
Iranian Mines & Mining Industries Development & Renovation) IMIDRO (and National Iranian Steel Company (NISC) (2023). Studies the Iran steel master plan. [In Persian]. Retrieved December 23, 2022, from https://niscoir.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Final-kholase-payesh-1401-Tir-1402.pdf
Isfahan Province Meteorological Administration (2016). Statistical yearbook [In Persian].
Isfahan Regional Water Company (2019). Adaptation plan to water shortage in Isfahan province. [In Persian].
Isfahan Regional Water Company (2023). Zayandeh Roud dam and power plant. [In Persian]. Retrieved July 24, 2023 from https://www.esrw.ir/st/130#
Isfahan Regional Electrical Company (2021). The History of Isfahan Electricity Industry. [In Persian]. Retrieved January 20, 2023, from https://www.erec.co.ir/fa/history.aspx
Islami, R. (2021, May 8). 10% of the area of Isfahan is involved in dangerous subsidence. [In Persian]. Retrieved June 8, 2023, from https://www.mehrnews.com/news/5206633/
Javdanian, H., & Ahmadi Darani, M. (2016). Overexploitation of groundwater resources and regional subsidence: Case study of Damaneh city, Isfahan. Journal of Water and Wastewater Science and Engineering, 1(1), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.22112/jwwse.2017.51030
Karandish, F., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2017). Informing National Food and Water Security Policy through Water Footprint Assessment: The case of Iran. Water, 9(11), 831. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110831
Konar, M., & Marston, L. (2020). The Water Footprint of the United States. Water, 12(11), 3286. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113286
Kumar, M. D., & Singh, O. P. (2005). Virtual water in global food and water policy making: Is there a need for rethinking? Water Resources Management, 19(6), 759–789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-005-3278-0
Kummu, M., Ward, P. J., de Moel, H., & Varis, O. (2010). Is Physical Water Scarcity a New Phenomenon? Global Assessment of Water Shortage over the last two Millennia. Environmental Research Letters, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034006
Le Roux, B., van der Laan, M., Vahrmeijer, T., Bristow, K. L., & Annandale, J. G. (2017). Establishing and testing a catchment water footprint framework to inform sustainable irrigation water use for an aquifer under stress. Science of the Total Environment, 599, 1119–1129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.170
Liqiang, G., Gaodi, X., Shimei, L., Yanpei, C., & Zhihai, L. (2016). The analysis of water footprint of production and water stress in China. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 7(5), 334–341. https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2016.05.003
Madani, K., AghaKouchak, A., & Mirchi, A. (2016). Iran’s socio-economic drought: Challenges of a water-bankrupt nation. Iranian Studies, 49(6), 997–1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/00210862.2016.1259286
Management and Planning Organization of Isfahan Province (1966–2016). Isfahan province Statistical Yearbooks [In Persian].
Masoodian, A. (2004). Temperature trends in Iran during the last half century. Geography and Development, 2(3), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.22111/gdij.2004.3831. [In Persian].
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2010a). A global and high-resolution assessment of the green, blue and grey water footprint of wheat. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 14(7), 1259–1276. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-1259-2010
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2010b). The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products. Value of Water Research Report Series; No, 48, 1–50. https://www.waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011a). The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15(5), 1577–1600. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011b). National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Production and Consumption. Volume 1: main report. (Value of Water Research Report Series; No. 50). UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. Delft, the Netherlands. https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report50-NationalWaterFootprints-Vol1%282%29.pdf
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2016). Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Science Advances, 2(2), e1500323. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323
Michel, D. (2019, July 9). Iran’s troubled quest for food self-sufficiency. Atlantic council. Retrieved January 7, 2023, from https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-s-troubled-quest-for-food-self-sufficiency/
Ministry of Agricultural Jihad (1966–2016). Statistical yearbooks. [In Persian].
Mirzaei, M., & Mehrab, M. (2014). Investigating the causes of Zayandeh Roud’s water shortage crisis and providing the necessary solutions to deal with it. The first national environmental conference. Payam Noor University, Isfahan, Iran. May 22, 2014. [In Persian]. https://civilica.com/doc/279494/
Mobarakeh Steel Company (2018, June 18). Reducing the annual consumption of 15 million cubic meters of water in Mobarake Steel. Interview of Mokhtar Bakhshian the deputy of operation of Mobarakeh steel company. [In Persian]. Retrieved October 4, 2022 from https://www.mojnews.com/fa/tiny/news-231642
Municipality of Isfahan (2007–2016). Statistical yearbooks of Isfahan city. [In Persian].
Nezamoleslami, R., & Hosseinian, S. M. (2020). An improved water footprint model of steel production concerning virtual water of personnel: The case of Iran. Journal of Environmental Management, 260, 110065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110065. [In Persian].
Operajouneghani, E., & Nasrollahi, Z. (2021). The Position of Economic Sectors in Isfahan Province based on the Consumption Approach using the input-output model. Journal of Water and Sustainable Development, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.22067/jwsd.v8i2.1007. [In Persian].
Organization of Agriculture Jihad of Isfahan province. (1966–2016). Statistical yearbooks. [In Persian].
Otto, B., & Schleifer, L. (2020, February 10). Domestic Water Use Grew 600% over the Past 50 Years. Retrieved February 17, 2023, from https://www.wri.org/insights/domestic-water-use-grew-600-over-past-50-years
Pahlevan, E., & Karimimanesh, E. (2021). The impact of environmental diplomacy on water crisis on the borderlands of Iran (case study: The Hirmand watersheds). Journal of Environmental Science Studies, 6(3), 3900–3912. [In Persian]https://www.jess.ir/article_134668_en.html
Pourasghar Sangachin, F., & Askari, M. (2015). Challenges of Iran’s water resources management in the country’s sixth development plan. The 13th National Conference on Environmental Impact Assessment of Iran, Tehran. [In Persian]. https://civilica.com/doc/536377/
Qomshi, M. (2021, April 13). Effects of water transfer from Karun river tributaries. [In Persian]. Retrieved October 11, 2022, from اثرات انتقال آب از سرشاخه های رودخانه کارون (shooshan.ir).
Qu, S., Liang, S., Konar, M., Zhu, Z., Chiu, A. S. F., Jia, X., & Xu, M. (2018). Virtual water scarcity risk to the Global Trade System. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(2). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04309
Rayatpishe, F., & Masoodian, A. (2015). A Trend Analysis of Area suffering from Climate Changes in Iran during: 1960–2004. Journal of Geography and Environmental Hazards, 4(2), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.22067/geo.v4i2.29845. [In Persian].
Saatsaz, M., & Rezaie, A. (2021). Water resources Management, Technology, and culture in ancient Iran. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-173
Sadeghi, A., & Ahmadi, H. (2022). Evaluation of monthly reference evapotranspiration in Iran based on the output of CORDEX-MNA project downscaled dynamic models. Physical Geography Research Quarterly, 54(2), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.22059/jphgr.2022.332856.1007652
Sedaghat, M., Ghazifard, A., Ajalloeian, R., & Shirani, K. (2020). Evaluation of the subsidence hazard due to groundwater withdrawal in Isfahan Metropolis. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 38, 297–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-019-01017-6
Shannon, M. A., Bohn, P. W., Elimelech, M., Georgiadis, J. G., Mariñas, B. J., & Mayes, A. M. (2008). Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades. Nature, 452(7185), 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06599
Sowers, J., Vengosh, A., & Weinthal, E. (2011). Climate change, water resources, and the politics of adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa. Climatic Change, 104(3–4), 599–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9835-4
Statistical Center of Iran (1966–2016). Iran Statistical yearbooks. [In Persian].
Tuyishimire, A., Liu, Y., Yin, J., Kou, L., Lin, S., Lin, J., & Simbi, C. H. (2022). Drivers of the increasing water footprint in Africa: The food consumption perspective. Science of the Total Environment, 809, 152196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152196
UN. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
UN-Water (2006). Coping with water scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-first century. https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/2006_unwater_coping_with_water_scarcity_eng.pdf
UN-Water (2015). UN-Water Annual International Zaragoza Conference. Water and Sustainable Development: From Vision to Action. 15–17 January 2015. Retrieved July 10, 2023 from https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/waterandsustainabledevelopment2015/open_working_group_sdg.shtml
United Nations (2007). Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. Third Edition. New York. https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/guidelines.pdf
Vanham, D., & Bidoglio, G. (2013). A review on the indicator water footprint for the EU28. Ecological Indicators, 26, 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.10.021
Vargas-Pineda, O. I., Trujillo-González, J. M., & Torres-Mora, M. A. (2020). Water footprint: An effective tool for the challenge of water sustainability. Ingeniería Y Competitividad, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.25100/iyc.v22i1.8429
Wang, D., Hubacek, K., Shan, Y., Gerbens-Leenes, W., & Liu, J. (2021). A review of water stress and Water Footprint Accounting. Water, 13(2), 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020201. MDPI AG.
Water Footprint Network (2022). Personal water footprint calculator. Retrieved December 8, 2022, from www.waterfootprint.org/resources/interactive-tools/personal-water-footprint-calculator/
Water Footprint Network (2023, March 24). Water footprint of crop and animal products: a comparison. Retrieved March 24, 2023, from https://www.waterfootprint.org/time-for-action/what-can-consumers-do/
World Economic Forum (2015). Global Risks 2015. 10th Edition, Geneva, Ref: 090115. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_2015_Report15.pdf
World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) (2014). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2014: Water and Energy. Paris, UNESCO. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1714Water%20Development%20Report%202014.pdf
World Wildlife Fund (2023, April 26). Water scarcity. Retrieved April 16, 2023, from https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity
Worlddata (2022). Average income around the world. Retrieved December 8, 2022, from www.worlddata.info/average-income.php
Zhuo, L., Feng, B., & Wu, P. (2020). Water Footprint Study Review for Understanding and resolving Water issues in China. Water, 12(11), 2988. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12112988
Zobahan, S. C. (2021, May 16). Steel production with minimum water consumption in Zobahan Steel Company. Interview of Mehrdad Esmaeili, the water supply manager of Zobahan steel company [In Persian]. Retrieved October 19, 2022 from https://pardazeshonline.com/zobahzn/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
As the only author of the paper, declare that I have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mokhtari Hashi, H. Analyzing water crisis through the water footprint approach; case of Isfahan province, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04882-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04882-1