Abstract
A review of the resilience measurement indicators as a useful tool is a necessity for supporting urban decision making. The main objective of this research is to identify the priorities of resilience criteria to investigate the validity of the urban resilience questionnaire. The four main social, economic, physical, environmental, and institutional resilience indicators were examined by 52 faculty members and experts in urban planning, crisis management, social sciences, urban management, and architecture as a sample population. Then, using exploratory factor analysis by statistical package for social science (SPSS) software, three hidden factors were identified for social and institutional resilience, while four hidden factors were identified for economic and physical–environmental resilience. Finally, after preparing a questionnaire for the region, to evaluate each hidden factor, the use of the method of the mean sum of distances from the optimal resilience limit has been proposed to evaluate the effect of hidden factors. The results show that the distance of the resilience dimensions is close to 1; the city has a good resilience index. As distance close to 0, the city in Ann index has a critical situation and should be necessary measures to increase the resilience of the index. Using this pattern and identifying the criteria distance to optimal extent and measuring the influence of each city, the future cities can be used.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adger, W. N. (2000). Social and ecological resilience: Are they related? Progress in Human Geography, 24(3), 347–364.
Ainuddin, S., & Routray, J. K. (2012). Earthquake hazards and community resilience in Baluchistan. Natural Hazards, 63(2), 909–937.
Allan, P., & Bryant, M. (2010). The critical role of open space in earthquake recovery: A case study. In NZSEE conference, Wellington New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington.
Amaratunga, D., & Haigh, R. (2011). Post-disaster reconstruction of the built environment: Building for resilience. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.
Arjan Wardekker, A., Wilk, B., Brown, V., et al. (2020). A diagnostic tool for supporting policy making on urban resilience. Cities, 101, 102691.
Behtash, F., Kaynezhad, M. R., Pirbabai, A., & Asgari, M. T. (2013). Evaluation and analysis of dimensions and components of Tabriz metropolis. Fine Arts, 18(3), 33–43.
Béné, C., Mehta, L., McGranahan, G., Cannon, T., Gupte, J., & Tanner, T. (2018). Resilience as a policy narrative: Potentials and limits in the context of urban planning. Climate and Development, 10(2), 116–133.
Bijker, W. E., Hommels, A., & Mesmann, J. (2014). Studying vulnerability in technological cultures. In A. Hommels, J. Mesman, & W. E. Bijker (Eds.), Vulnerability in technological cultures: New directions in research and governance (pp. 1–26). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Boin, A., & McConnell, A. (2007). Preparing for critical infrastructure breakdowns: The limits of crisis management and the need for resilience. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 15(1), 50–59.
Bozza, A., Asprone, D., & Fabbrocino, F. (2017). Urban resilience: A civil engineering perspective. Sustainability, 9(1), 103.
Brassett, J., & Vaughan-Williams, N. (2015). Security and the performative politics of resilience: Critical infrastructure protection and humanitarian emergency preparedness. Security Dialogue, 46(1), 32–50.
Brown, K. (2014). Global environmental change I: A social turn for resilience? Progress in Human Geography, 38(1), 107–117.
Burton, C. G. (2012). The development of metrics for community resilience to natural disasters. PhD Thesis, College of Arts and Sciences, California State University.
Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Anderies, J. M., & Abel, N. (2001). From metaphor to measurement: Resilience of what to what? Ecosystems, 4, 765–781.
Chang, S. E., McDaniels, T., Fox, J., et al. (2014). Toward disaster-resilient cities: Characterizing resilience of infrastructure systems with expert judgments. Risk Analysis, 34(3), 416–434.
Coaffee, J. (2013). Towards next-generation urban resilience in planning practice: From securitization to integrated place making. Planning Practice & Research, 28(3), 323–339.
Cutter, S. L., Ash, K. D., & Emrich, C. T. (2016). Urban-rural differences in disaster resilience. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 106(6), 1236–1252.
Cutter, S., Barnes, L. L., Berry, M., Burton, Ch., & Webb, J. (2008). A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, 18(4), 598–606.
Cutter, L., Burton, G., & Emrich, T. (2010). Disaster resilience indicators for benchmarking baseline conditions. Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 7(1), 1–22.
Davis, I., & Izadkhah, Y. (2006). Building resilient urban communities. Article from OHT, 31(1), 11–21.
Deal, B., Pan, H., Pallathucheril, V., & Fulton, G. (2017). Urban resilience and planning support systems: The need for sentience. Journal of Urban Technology, 24(1), 29–45.
Falahi, A., & Jalali, T. (2013). Suspended reconstruction from the point of view of urban design after the earthquake of 1382 Bam. Journal of Fine Arts, 18(3), 5–16.
Fergusen, E., & Cox, T. (1993). Exploratory factor analysis: A users’ guide. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 1, 84–94.
Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 286–299.
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 253–267.
Godschalk, D. R. (2003). Urban hazard mitigation: Creating resilient cities. Natural Hazard Review, 4(3), 136–143.
Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
Hair, J., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Henson, R. K., & Roberts, J. K. (2006). Use of exploratory factor analysis in published research. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 393–416.
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic, 4, 1–23.
Howard, M. C. (2016). A review of exploratory factor analysis decisions and overview of current practices: What we are doing and how can we improve? International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 32(1), 51–62.
Jafari, H., Saeedi, S. N., Ka’bay, A., Noushadi, I., & Haleafi, H. R. (2015). Implementation of exploratory factor analysis method in assessing competitiveness of port services. Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 14(2), 96–112.
Jones, T., Glasson, J., Wood, D., & Fulton, E. A. (2011). Regional planning and resilient futures: Destination modeling and tourism development—The case of the Ningaloo Coastal Region in Western Australia. Planning Practice and Research, 26(4), 393–415.
Kazemian, Gh. R., Bagheri, H. & Shojaei, M. (2014). Investigating the extent of supporting the concept of urban vibration in the urban laws of Iran. In The first national conference on urban planning, urban management and sustainable development, Iranian Institute of Architecture, Tehran, Iran.
Khalatbari, J., & Bahar, S. (2010). Relationship between exposure and life satisfaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1(2), 83–94.
Kharazi, S. (2014). Investigating the relation between wisdom with psychological well-being and quality of life. In First national conference on psychology and education, Islamic Azad University, Shadegan.
Klein, R. J., & Nicholls, F. (2003). Thomalla, Resilience to natural hazards: How useful is this concept? Environmental Hazards, 5(1–2), 35–45.
Kroger, W., & Zio, E. (2011). Vulnerable systems. London: Springer.
Latifi, Gh R. (2010). Urban management. Tehran: Publishing Elm.
Lei, Y., Wang, J. A., Yue, Y., Zhou, H., & Yin, W. (2013). Rethinking the relationships of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation from a disaster risk perspective. Natural Hazards, 70(1), 609–627.
Maguire, B., & Hagen, P. C. (2007). Disasters and communities: Understanding social resilience. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 22, 16–20.
Maru, Y. T. (2010). Resilient regions: Clarity of concepts and challenges to systemic measurement. CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, 4(1), 26–40.
Masnavi, M. R., Gharai, F., & Hajibandeh, M. (2019). Exploring urban resilience thinking for its application in urban planning: A review of literature. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16, 567–582.
Masoumi, L. (2015). The impact of lifestyle on urban flexibility (comparative study: regions 1 and 19 of Tehran). Master’s Thesis for Geography and Urban Planning, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran.
Masten, A. S., Powell, J. L., & Luthar, S. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities (pp. 1–25).
Mayunga, J. S. (2007). Understanding and applying the concept of community disaster resilience: A capital-based approach. Summer Academy for Social Vulnerability and Resilience Building, 1, 1–16.
Meerow, S., Newell, J. P., & Stults, M. (2016). Defining urban resilience: A review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 147(2016), 38–49.
Meriläinen, E. (2020). The dual discourse of urban resilience: Robust city and self-organised neighborhoods. Disasters, 44(1), 125–151.
Mieler, D. H., & Brechwald, D. (2012). Regional resilience initiative: Policy agenda for recovery. Earthquake and Hazards Specialist. Retrieved from http://bayareauasi.org/sites/default/files/resources/031413%20Agenda%20Item%209%20ABAG%20Report.pdf.
Monstadt, J., & Schmidt, M. (2019). Urban resilience in the making? The governance of critical infrastructures in German cities, Urban Studies, 56(11), 2353–2371.
Morrow-Howell, N., O’Neill, G., & Greenfield, J. C. (2011). Civic engagement: Policies and programs to support a resilient aging society. In Resilience in aging (Concepts, Research, and Outcomes) (pp. 147–162). New York: Springer.
Namjoyan, F., Razavian, M. T., & Server, R. (2015). Urban conservation a necessary framework for managing the future of cities. Geographical Land, 14(55), 81–95.
Norris, F. H., et al. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities and strategy for disaster. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(1–2), 127–150.
Rafiyan, M., Rezaei, M. R., Asgari, A., Parhizgar, A., & Shayan, S. (2011). Conceptual explanation of wrapping and indicating it in community-based disaster management. Journal of Planning and Space Design, 15(4), 28–41.
Rezaei, M. R. (2010). Explanation of urban community resilience to reduce the effects of natural disasters (earthquake) (case study: Tehran metropolis). Ph.D. in Geography and Urban Planning, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran.
Rezaei, M. R. (2013). Evaluation of economic and institutional resilience of urban communities against natural disasters (Case study: Earthquake in Tehran’s neighborhoods). Journal of Crisis Management, 2(1), 27–38.
Ribeiro, P. J. G., & Gonçalves, L. A. P. J. (2019). Urban resilience: A conceptual framework. Sustainable Cities and Society, 50, 101625.
Santo, R. (2010). Why resilience? A review of resilience and implications for feature educational research. Claremont Graduate University & San Diego State University.
Sapnas, K. G., & Zeller, R. A. (2002). Minimizing sample size when using exploratory factor analysis for measurement. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 10(2), 135–153.
Sepehr, A. (2014). Analysis of the role of ecological flexibility in urban ecosystems. Urban Planning, 5(17), 35–46.
Tabachnick, B., & Fidell, L. (2012). Using multivariate statistics. London: Pearson Education Inc.
Thomas Elmqvist, T., Erik Andersson, E., Niki Frantzeskaki, N., et al. (2019). Sustainability and resilience for transformation in the urban century. Nature Sustainability, 2, 267–273.
Tilio, L., Murgante, B., Di Trani, F., Vona, M., & Masi, A. (2011). Resilient city and seismic risk: A spatial multi criteria approach, ICCSA. Part I (pp. 410–422). Berlin: Springer.
Williams, B., Brown, T., & Onsman, A. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis: A five- step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8(3), 1–13.
Zhang, X., & Li, H. (2019). Urban resilience and urban sustainability: What we know and what do not know? Cities, 72, 141–148.
Zhang, X., Yi, L., & Zhao, D. (2013). Community-based disaster management: A review of progress in China. Natural Hazards, 65(3), 2215–2239.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix: Questionnaire designed for identifying the urban resilience dimension
Appendix: Questionnaire designed for identifying the urban resilience dimension
Dimensions of resilience | Row | Questions | Options | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Very low (1) | Low (2) | Medium (3) | High (4) | Very much (5) | |||
Social | q1 | Creating a coherent and integrated structure of community, personal and family support, and a suitable neighborhood | |||||
q2 | The overall social cohesion of the city, lack of fragility and disintegration | ||||||
q3 | Access of all citizens to safe drinking water | ||||||
q4 | Possibility of healthy and adequate nutrition for all townspeople | ||||||
q5 | Providing safe housing facilities for all citizens (personal or rental) | ||||||
q6 | All citizens have access to affordable electricity and gas | ||||||
q7 | Careful monitoring of public health and public health (e.g., vaccination or screening) | ||||||
q8 | All citizens have access to all public health care | ||||||
q9 | Emergency medical and emergency response services | ||||||
q10 | Creating a sense of belonging and dependence on the city among people | ||||||
q11 | Active presence of citizens in city issues | ||||||
Economic | q12 | Establishing financial support mechanisms in risky conditions for urban businesses | |||||
q13 | Equipping the city with powerful crime detection mechanisms | ||||||
q14 | Establishing transparent and fair institutions to fight corruption in the city | ||||||
q15 | Creating strong and flexible foundations of the economy in the city | ||||||
q16 | Attracting social potential, diversified capital, and economic brand of the city | ||||||
q17 | Establishing a strong relationship between the city’s economy and other economic (national or global) flows | ||||||
q18 | Creating a reliable two-way business flow between the private and public sectors | ||||||
q19 | Job-Welfare support for low-income people in the city | ||||||
q20 | Creating opportunities for people based on their education and skills | ||||||
q21 | The expansion of the growth and development of urban businesses | ||||||
q22 | Promoting justice and solution for civil disputes in an effective, affordable, impartial, and accessible mechanism | ||||||
q23 | Establishing security and peace in the city by proper and effective police actions | ||||||
q24 | Assistance to businesses through various support services (non-financial and livelihoods) | ||||||
q25 | Storing enough financial capital for the city and its proper management | ||||||
Physical–environmental | q26 | Establishing effective mechanisms for the protection of natural resources and the environment | |||||
q27 | Implementation of appropriate building codes and standards | ||||||
q28 | Study of the effects of nature after the occurrence of a crisis (such as earthquake floods) | ||||||
q29 | Having vital arteries (water, electricity, gas) is good for protecting people from natural disasters | ||||||
q30 | Preparing a comprehensive map of the city’s high-risk areas | ||||||
q31 | Having an arterial transportation network (inside and outside the city) | ||||||
q32 | Management in the traffic flow and maintenance of the arterial network of the city | ||||||
q33 | Establishing telecommunication and Internet security | ||||||
q34 | Permanent control and maintenance of logistics and crisis management skills | ||||||
q35 | Establishing an appropriate and comprehensive telecommunication and networking system in the city | ||||||
q36 | Enhancing the capacity of the city’s infrastructure with proper management | ||||||
q37 | Creating diverse infrastructures for critical situations | ||||||
q38 | Permanent control and maintenance of the infrastructure and vital arteries of the city | ||||||
Institutional | q39 | Clarification of urban management decision-making mechanism | |||||
q40 | High-quality and affordable education for all people in the city | ||||||
q41 | Awareness and general preparedness for exposure to danger | ||||||
q42 | Creating efficient, transparent, and fast mechanisms for linking urban management and citizens | ||||||
q43 | Creating a constructive and extensive relationship between people involved in urban management | ||||||
q44 | Establishing a great and effective management relationship between city and state administration as well as other public sectors | ||||||
q45 | Controlling systems for monitoring the risks and possible crises in urban management | ||||||
q46 | Reviewing urban planning and management policies and strategies | ||||||
q47 | Analysis of the monitoring system and the systematic collection of important urban data | ||||||
q48 | Having the necessary management skills in the event of a crisis | ||||||
q49 | Appropriate arrangement of land use in the city | ||||||
q50 | Adapting detailed designs to comprehensive urban plans |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ghouchani, M., Taji, M., Yaghoubi Roshan, A. et al. Identification and assessment of hidden capacities of urban resilience. Environ Dev Sustain 23, 3966–3993 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00752-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00752-8