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Influence of meteorological variables and air pollutants on fog/smog formation in seven major cities of Indo-Gangetic Plain

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Abstract

The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of the Indian subcontinent during winters experience widespread fog episodes. The low visibility is not only attributed to meteorological conditions but also to the increased pollution levels in the region. The study was carried out for Tier 1 and Tier II cities of the IGP of India, including Kolkata, Amritsar, Patiala, Hisar, Delhi, Patna, and Lucknow. This work analyzes data from 1990 to 2023 (33 years) employing the Mann–Kendall-Theil-Sen slope to determine the trends in fog occurrences and the relation between fog and meteorological parameters using multiple linear regressions. Furthermore, identifying the most relevant fog (visibility)—impacting factors from a set of both meteorological factors and air pollutants using step-wise regression. All cities indicated trend in the number of foggy days except for Kolkata. The multiple regression analysis reveals relatively low associations between fog occurrences and meteorological factors (30 to 59%), although the association was stronger when air pollution levels were considered (60 to 91%). Relative humidity, PM2.5, and PM10 have the most influence on fog formation. The study provides comprehensive insights into fog trends by incorporating meteorological data and air pollution analysis. The findings highlight the significance of acknowledging meteorological and pollution factors to understand and mitigate the impacts of reduced visibility. Hence, this information can guide policymakers, urban planners, and environmental management agencies in developing effective strategies to manage fog-related risks and improve air quality.

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Data availability

GSOD, ISD, and daily mean pollution concentration data are freely accessible from the data providers mentioned in the “Datasets and Methodology” section of the manuscript. GSOD, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/search/data-search/global-summary-of-the-day; ISD, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/search/data-search/global-hourly; daily mean pollution concentration, https://airquality.cpcb.gov.in/ccr/#/caaqm-dashboard-all/caaqm-landing/data.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Birla Institute of Technology for providing all the necessary support in completing the article. We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.

Funding

This work was supported by the University Grant Commission (UGC), Govt. of India (grant numbers and UGC-Ref. No.: 400/(CSIR-UGC NET JUNE 2019).

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  1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, 835215, Ranchi, India

    Kanchan Lakra & Kirti Avishek

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  1. Kanchan Lakra
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Kanchan Lakra: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft.

Kirti Avishek: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing – review and editing.

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Correspondence to Kanchan Lakra.

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Lakra, K., Avishek, K. Influence of meteorological variables and air pollutants on fog/smog formation in seven major cities of Indo-Gangetic Plain. Environ Monit Assess 196, 533 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12662-7

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