Abstract
This study investigates the characteristics of potentially toxic elements in soils collected from the vicinity of a lead smelter in East Java, Indonesia. The objective is to assess the impact of the lead smelter on the surrounding soil. The study involves chemical composition analysis, spatial distribution mapping, and potential ecological and health risk assessments. Soil samples were collected from the surface area (0–10 cm) and subsurface (15–30 cm) within radii of 1.5 km, 3 km, and 5 km from the lead smelter. The samples were analyzed for As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to identify the sources of potentially toxic elements in the soil. The results indicate severe Pb contamination within a 1.5 km radius of the smelter, with an average contamination factor (Cf) value of 22.0, posing a high potential health risk. The contamination factor indicated that the soils were heavily polluted by As and Pb and moderately polluted by Cu, Ni, and Zn. The results of PCA showed that smelter releases are the main source of potentially toxic element contamination in the soil, accounting for 66.2%. The health risk assessment suggested that the children and adults in the study region were exposed to non-carcinogenic risks caused by As and Pb. Oral ingestion was identified as the primary exposure route impacting health risks. The carcinogenic risk from potentially toxic elements in soil was found to exceed the acceptable level for children and adults in the study region. Therefore, it is necessary for the government to take effective measures, including designing regulations and interventions, and improving lead smelter management to mitigate potential contamination and minimize the impact of lead smelter releases on the surrounding environment, especially to protect human health, particularly that of children.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the National Nuclear Energy Agency and the Lamongan Environmental Protection Agency for their invaluable support and assistance throughout this research.
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The authors received financial support from the Nuclear Energy Research Organization for this study. They also received support for this research through the research contract RCARP01/RC2 from the Regional Cooperative Agreement Research Organization (RCARO).
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Diah Dwiana Lestiani conceptualized, drafted, wrote, and finalized the manuscript; managed and curated the data; visualized the data; performed the data analysis and interpretation; and responded to the reviews. Woro Yatu Niken Syahfitri and Natalia Adventini participated in sample collection, preparation, and sample measurement. Syukria Kurniawati conducted the sample measurements and responded to the reviews. Endah Damastuti assisted with data management and responded to the reviews. Biplab Biswas contributed to data visualization and reviewed the manuscript. Muhayatun Santoso secured funding and supervised the research. Rita Mukhtar assisted in sample collection and coordinated with the local government.
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Lestiani, D.D., Syahfitri, W.Y.N., Adventini, N. et al. Impacts of a lead smelter in East Java, Indonesia: degree of contamination, spatial distribution, ecological risk, and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in soils. Environ Monit Assess 195, 1165 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11745-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11745-1