Abstract
To reduce environmental and human health risks of contaminated sites, having a comprehensive knowledge about the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) removal processes is crucial. PAHs are contaminants which are highly recognized to pose threats to humans, animals, and plants. PAHs are hydrophobic and own two or more benzene rings, and hence are resistant to structural degradation. There are various techniques which have been developed to treat PAH-contaminated soil. Four distinct processes to remove PAHs in the contaminated soil, thought to be more effective techniques, are presented in this review: soil washing, chemical oxidation, electrokinetic, phytoremediation. In a surfactant-aided washing process, a removal rate of 90% was reported. Compost-amended phytoremediation treatment presented 58–99% removal of pyrene from the soil in 90 days. Chemical oxidation method was able to reach complete conversion for some PAHs. In electrokinetic treatment, researchers have achieved reliable results in removal of some specific PAHs. Researchers’ innovations in novel studies and advantages/disadvantages of the techniques are also investigated throughout the paper. Finally, it should be noted that an exclusive method or a combination of methods by themselves are not the key to be employed for remediation of every contaminated site but the field characteristics are also essential in selection of the most appropriate decontamination technique(s). The remedy for selection criteria is based on PAH concentrations, site characteristics, costs, shortcomings, and advantages.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- EPA:
-
Environmental Protection Agency
- HOCs:
-
Hydrophobic organic contaminations
- PAHs:
-
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
References
Alcántara, M. T., Gómez, J., Pazos, M., & Sanromán, M. A. (2010). Electrokinetic remediation of PAH mixtures from kaolin. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 179(1–3), 1156–1160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.03.010.
Antizar-Ladislao, B., Lopez-Real, J., & Beck, A. J. (2005). Laboratory studies of the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil by in-vessel composting. Waste Management, 25(3), 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.01.009.
Bakhtiari, A. R., Zakaria, M. P., Yaziz, M. I., Lajis, M. N. H., Bi, X., & Rahim, M. C. A. (2009). Vertical distribution and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in anoxic sediment cores of Chini Lake, Malaysia: perylene as indicator of land plant-derived hydrocarbons. Applied Geochemistry, 24(9), 1777–1787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2009.05.008.
Bansal, V., & Kim, K. H. (2015). Review of PAH contamination in food products and their health hazards. Environment International, 84, 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.06.016.
Barbeni, M., Minero, C., Pelizzetti, E., Borgarello, E., & Serpone, N. (1987). Chemical degradation of chlorophenols with Fenton’s reagent (Fe2++ H2O2). Chemosphere, 16(10–12), 2225–2237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(87)90281-5.
Barra, R., Castillo, C., & Torres, J. P. M. (2007). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the South American environment. In Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology (pp. 1–22). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-69163-3_1.
Bavel, B. V. (2006). Comparison of Fenton’s reagent and ozone oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in aged contaminated soils. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 6(4), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1065/jss2006.08.179.
Bocos, E., Fernández-Costas, C., Pazos, M., & Sanromán, M. Á. (2015). Removal of PAHs and pesticides from polluted soils by enhanced electrokinetic-Fenton treatment. Chemosphere, 125, 168–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.12.049.
Boll, E. S., Christensen, J. H., & Holm, P. E. (2008). Quantification and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediment, soil, and water spinach from Hanoi, Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10(2), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1039/b712809f.
Bossert, I. D., & Bartha, R. (1986). Structure-biodegradability relationships of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 37(1), 490–495.
Cheema, S. A., Khan, M. I., Shen, C., Tang, X., Farooq, M., Chen, L., … & Chen, Y. (2010). Degradation of phenanthrene and pyrene in spiked soils by single and combined plants cultivation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 177(1–3), 384–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.12.044.
Chen, J. L., & Murdoch, L. (1999). Effects of electroosmosis on natural soil: field test. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 125(12), 1090–1098. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:12(1090.
Chen, C. T., Tafuri, A. N., Rahman, M., & Foerst, M. B. (1998). Chemical oxidation treatment of petroleum contaminated soil using Fenton’s reagent. Journal of Environmental Science & Health Part A, 33(6), 987–1008. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529809376772.
Cheng, M., Zeng, G., Huang, D., Lai, C., Xu, P., Zhang, C., & Liu, Y. (2016). Hydroxyl radicals based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for remediation of soils contaminated with organic compounds: a review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 284, 582–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.09.001.
Chirakkara, R. A., Reddy, K. R., & Cameselle, C. (2015). Electrokinetic amendment in phytoremediation of mixed contaminated soil. Electrochimica Acta, 181, 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.025.
Colacicco, A., De Gioannis, G., Muntoni, A., Pettinao, E., Polettini, A., & Pomi, R. (2010). Enhanced electrokinetic treatment of marine sediments contaminated by heavy metals and PAHs. Chemosphere, 81(1), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.07.004.
Connell, D. W. (2005). Basic concepts of environmental chemistry. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Crimi, M., Quickel, M., & Ko, S. (2009). Enhanced permanganate in situ chemical oxidation through MnO2 particle stabilization: evaluation in 1-D transport systems. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 105(1–2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2008.11.007.
Cunningham, S. D., Shann, J. R., Crowley, D. E., & Anderson, T. A. (1997). Phytoremediation of contaminated water and soil. In E. Kruger (Ed.), Phytoremediation of soil and water contaminants (pp. 2–17). Washington, DC: ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-1997-0664.ch001.
Douglas, G., S., Emsbomattingly, S., Stout, S., A., Uhler, A., D., & McCarthy, K., J. (2007). Chemical fingerprinting methods. In B.L. Murphy & R. D. Morrison (Eds.), Introduction to environmental forensics (pp. 311–454). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-369522-2.X5000-3
Falahatpisheh, M. H., Donnelly, K. C., & Ramos, K. S. (2001). Antagonistic interactions among nephrotoxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A, 62(7), 543–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/152873901300007833.
Ferrarese, E., Andreottola, G., & Oprea, I. A. (2008). Remediation of PAH-contaminated sediments by chemical oxidation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 152(1), 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.06.080.
Gan, S., & Ng, H. K. (2012a). Inorganic chelated modified-Fenton treatment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-contaminated soils. Chemical Engineering Journal, 180, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.10.082.
Gan, S., & Ng, H. K. (2012b). Modified Fenton oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-contaminated soils and the potential of bioremediation as post-treatment. Science of the Total Environment, 419, 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.053.
Gan, S., Lau, E. V., & Ng, H. K. (2009). Remediation of soils contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 172(2–3), 532–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.07.118.
Gao, Y., Li, Q., Ling, W., & Zhu, X. (2011). Arbuscular mycorrhizal phytoremediation of soils contaminated with phenanthrene and pyrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 185(2–3), 703–709.
Gitipour, S., Ghasemi, S., Shasemzade, R. (2016). Methods for treatment of PAH contaminated soils; review and comparison, 4th International Conference on Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development, Jamshoro, Pakistan.
Gogou, A., Bouloubassi, I., & Stephanou, E. G. (2000). Marine organic geochemistry of the Eastern Mediterranean: 1. Aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in Cretan Sea surficial sediments. Marine Chemistry, 68(4), 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4203(99)00082-1.
Goldman, R., Enewold, L., Pellizzari, E., Beach, J. B., Bowman, E. D., Krishnan, S. S., & Shields, P. G. (2001). Smoking increases carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human lung tissue. Cancer Research, 61(17), 6367–6371 http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/61/17/6367.abstract.
Gong, Z., Wilke, B. M., Alef, K., Li, P., & Zhou, Q. (2006). Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from manufactured gas plant-contaminated soils using sunflower oil: laboratory column experiments. Chemosphere, 62(5), 780–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.078.
Haapea, P., & Tuhkanen, T. (2006). Integrated treatment of PAH contaminated soil by soil washing, ozonation and biological treatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 136(2), 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.12.033.
Hailwood, M., King, D., Leoz, E., Maynard, R., Menichini, E., Moorcroft, S., … & Wichmann-Fiebig, M. (2001). Ambient air pollution by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAH. Position Paper Annexes.
Hamdi, H., Benzarti, S., Manusadžianas, L., Aoyama, I., & Jedidi, N. (2007). Solid-phase bioassays and soil microbial activities to evaluate PAH-spiked soil ecotoxicity after a long-term bioremediation process simulating landfarming. Chemosphere, 70(1), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.06.043.
Hamdi, H., Benzarti, S., Aoyama, I., & Jedidi, N. (2012). Rehabilitation of degraded soils containing aged PAHs based on phytoremediation with alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 67, 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2011.10.009.
Hatheway, A. W. (2002). Geoenvironmental protocol for site and waste characterization of former manufactured gas plants; worldwide remediation challenge in semi-volatile organic wastes. Engineering Geology, 64(4), 317–338.
Hawthorne, S. B., Langenfeld, J. J., Miller, D. J., & Burford, M., D. (1992). Comparison of supercritical CHCIF_2, N_2O, and CO_2 for the extraction of polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Analytical Chemistry, 64, 1614–1622.
Huling, S. G., & Pivetz, B. E. (2006). In-situ chemical oxidation (No. EPA/600/R-06/072). Environmental Protection Agency Washington DC Office of Water.
Jiang, J., Zhou, C., An, S., Yang, H., Guan, B., & Cai, Y. (2008). Sediment type, population density and their combined effect greatly charge the short-time growth of two common submerged macrophytes. Ecological Engineering, 34(2), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.07.003.
Jin, D., Jiang, X., Jing, X., & Ou, Z. (2007). Effects of concentration, head group, and structure of surfactants on the degradation of phenanthrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 144(1–2), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.10.012.
Joner, E. J., Leyval, C., & Colpaert, J. V. (2006). Ectomycorrhizas impede phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) both within and beyond the rhizosphere. Environmental Pollution, 142(1), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.09.007.
Jonsson, S., Persson, Y., Frankki, S., Lundstedt, S., Bavel, B., Haglund, P., Tysklind, M. (2006) Comparison of Fenton's Reagent and Ozone Oxidation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Aged Contaminated Soils (7 pp). Journal of Soils and Sediments, 6 (4), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1065/jss2006.08.179
Jonsson, S., Persson, Y., Frankki, S., Bavel, B., Lundstedt, S., Haglund, P., Tysklind, M. (2007) Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soils by Fenton's reagent: A multivariate evaluation of the importance of soil characteristics and PAH properties. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 149, (1):86–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.03.057
Juwarkar, A. A., & Jambhulkar, H. P. (2008). Phytoremediation of coal mine spoil dump through integrated biotechnological approach. Bioresource Technology, 99(11), 4732–4741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.09.060.
Kim, S. S., Kim, J. H., & Han, S. J. (2005). Application of the electrokinetic-Fenton process for the remediation of kaolinite contaminated with phenanthrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 118(1–3), 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.10.005.
Kim, D., Kumfer, B. M., Anastasio, C., Kennedy, I. M., & Young, T. M. (2009). Environmental aging of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on soot and its effect on source identification. Chemosphere, 76(8), 1075–1081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.04.031.
Kronholm, J., Desbands, B., Hartonen, K., & Riekkola, M. L. (2002). Environmentally friendly laboratory-scale remediation of PAH-contaminated soil by using pressurized hot water extraction coupled with pressurized hot water oxidation. Green Chemistry, 4(3), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1039/B200804C.
Kuppusamy, S., Palanisami, T., Megharaj, M., Venkateswarlu, K., & Naidu, R. (2016). Ex-Situ remediation technologies for environmental pollutants: A critical perspective. In P. de Voogt (Ed.), Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology Volume 236. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20013-2_2
Lahlou, M., Harms, H., Springael, D., & Ortega-Calvo, J. J. (2000). Influence of soil components on the transport of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria through saturated porous media. Environmental Science & Technology, 34(17), 3649–3656. https://doi.org/10.1021/es000021t.
Lima, A. T., Kleingeld, P. J., Heister, K., & Loch, J. G. (2011). Removal of PAHs from contaminated clayey soil by means of electro-osmosis. Separation and Purification Technology, 79(2), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.02.021.
Liu, K., Han, W., Pan, W. P., & Riley, J. T. (2001). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions from a coal-fired pilot FBC system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 84(2–3), 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(01)00196-0.
Liu, H., Meng, F., Tong, Y., & Chi, J. (2014a). Effect of plant density on phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contaminated sediments with Vallisneria spiralis. Ecological Engineering, 73, 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.084.
Liu, R., Xiao, N., Wei, S., Zhao, L., & An, J. (2014b). Rhizosphere effects of PAH-contaminated soil phytoremediation using a special plant named Fire Phoenix. Science of the Total Environment, 473, 350–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.027.
López-Vizcaíno, R., Sáez, C., Cañizares, P., & Rodrigo, M. A. (2012). The use of a combined process of surfactant-aided soil washing and coagulation for PAH-contaminated soils treatment. Separation and Purification Technology, 88, 46–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.11.038.
Lyons, W. C. (1996). Standard handbook of petroleum and natural gas engineering. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.
Mackay, D., Shiu, W. Y., & Ma, K. C. (1997). Illustrated handbook of physical-chemical properties of environmental fate for organic chemicals. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Manahan, S. E. (1999). Industrial ecology: environmental chemistry and hazardous waste. Boca Raton: CRC Press http://113.160.249.209:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/7708.
Mao, X., Jiang, R., Xiao, W., & Yu, J. (2015). Use of surfactants for the remediation of contaminated soils: a review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 285, 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.009.
Martin, L. R., Easton, M. P., Foster, J. W., & Hill, M. W. (1989). Oxidation of hydroxymethanesulfonic acid by Fenton’s reagent. Atmospheric Environment (1967), 23(3), 563–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(89)90005-X.
Masclet, P., Bresson, M. A., & Mouvier, G. (1987). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emitted by power stations, and influence of combustion conditions. Fuel, 66(4), 556–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(87)90163-3.
Mitchell J., K. (1993). Fundamentals of soil behavior. Wiley.
O’Mahony, M. M., Dobson, A. D., Barnes, J. D., & Singleton, I. (2006). The use of ozone in the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil. Chemosphere, 63(2), 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.07.018.
Osman, K. T. (2013). Soils, Principles, Properties and Management. Netherlands: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2
Page, D. S., Boehm, P. D., Douglas, G. S., Bence, A. E., Burns, W. A., & Mankiewicz, P. J. (1996). The natural petroleum hydrocarbon background in subtidal sediments of Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 15(8), 1266–1281. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620150804.
Pham, T. D., Shrestha, R. A., Virkutyte, J., & Sillanpää, M. (2009). Combined ultrasonication and electrokinetic remediation for persistent organic removal from contaminated kaolin. Electrochimica Acta, 54(5), 1403–1407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2008.09.015.
Phillips, D. H. (1983). Fifty years of benzo (a) pyrene. Nature, 303(5917), 468. https://doi.org/10.1038/303468a0.
Pilon-Smits, E. (2005). Phytoremediation. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 56, 15–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.09.076.
Ravindra, K., Mittal, A. K., & Grieken, R. (2001). Health risk assessment of urban suspended particulate matter with special reference to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a review. Reviews on Environmental Health, 16(3), 169–190. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.2001.16.3.169
Rentz, J. A., Alvarez, P. J., & Schnoor, J. L. (2005). Benzo [a] pyrene co-metabolism in the presence of plant root extracts and exudates: implications for phytoremediation. Environmental Pollution, 136(3), 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.12.034.
Rivas, F. J. (2006). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sorbed on soils: a short review of chemical oxidation based treatments. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 138(2), 234–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.048.
Rivas, J., Gimeno, O., Ruth, G., & Beltrán, F. J. (2009). Ozone treatment of PAH contaminated soils: operating variables effect. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169(1–3), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.136.
Rosas, J. M., Santos, A., & Romero, A. (2013). Soil-washing effluent treatment by selective adsorption of toxic organic contaminants on activated carbon. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 224(5), 1506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-013-1506-4.
Saber, D., Mauro, D., & Sirivedhin, T. (2006). Environmental forensics investigation in sediments near a former manufactured gas plant site. Environmental Forensics, 7(1), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275920500506881.
Saichek, R. E., & Reddy, K. R. (2004). Evaluation of surfactants/cosolvents for desorption/solubilization of phenanthrene in clayey soils. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 61(5), 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020723042000212636.
Samanta, S. K., Singh, O. V., & Jain, R. K. (2002). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: environmental pollution and bioremediation. TRENDS in Biotechnology, 20(6), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7799(02)01943-1.
Sirés, I., Brillas, E., Oturan, M. A., Rodrigo, M. A., & Panizza, M. (2014). Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes: today and tomorrow. a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(14), 8336–8367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2783-1.
Song, W., Li, J., Zhang, W., Hu, X., & Wang, L. (2012). An experimental study on the remediation of phenanthrene in soil using ultrasound and soil washing. Environmental Earth Sciences, 66(5), 1487–1496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1388-y.
Šrám, R. J., Binková, B., Rössner, P., Rubeš, J., Topinka, J., & Dejmek, J. (1999). Adverse reproductive outcomes from exposure to environmental mutagens. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 428(1), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5742(99)00048-4.
Stogiannidis, E., Laane, R. (2015). Source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by using their molecular indices: An overview of possibilities. In D. Whitacre (Ed.), Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology (Continuation of Residue Reviews), vol 234. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10638-0_2
Sun, Y., Zhou, Q., & Diao, C. (2008). Effects of cadmium and arsenic on growth and metal accumulation of Cd-hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. Bioresource Technology, 99(5), 1103–1110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.02.035.
Sun, Y., Zhou, Q., Xu, Y., Wang, L., & Liang, X. (2011). Phytoremediation for co-contaminated soils of benzo [a] pyrene (B [a] P) and heavy metals using ornamental plant Tagetes patula. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186(2–3), 2075–2082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.116.
Teng, Y., Shen, Y., Luo, Y., Sun, X., Sun, M., Fu, D., et al. (2011). Influence of Rhizobium meliloti on phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by alfalfa in an aged contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186(2–3), 1271–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.126.
Tobiszewski, M., & Namieśnik, J. (2012). PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environmental Pollution, 162, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.10.025.
Trellu, C., Ganzenko, O., Papirio, S., Pechaud, Y., Oturan, N., Huguenot, D., … & Oturan, M. A. (2016). Combination of anodic oxidation and biological treatment for the removal of phenanthrene and Tween 80 from soil washing solution. Chemical Engineering Journal, 306, 588–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.07.108.
U.S. EPA. (2012). A citizen’s guide to phytoremediation. Engineering, 1–6.
U.S. EPA. 1984a. (2007). Method 610: polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. U.S.EPA. “Treatment Technologies for Site Cleanup: Annual Status Report.” Washington.
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2015). https://classic.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/combo/searchChemical.do. 2015.
Veignie, E., Rafin, C., Landy, D., Fourmentin, S., & Surpateanu, G. (2009). Fenton degradation assisted by cyclodextrins of a high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon benzo [a] pyrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 168(2–3), 1296–1301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.012.
Von Lau, E., Gan, S., Ng, H. K., & Poh, P. E. (2014). Extraction agents for the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from soil in soil washing technologies. Environmental pollution, 184, 640–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.09.010.
Wang, Z., Fingas, M., Lambert, P., Zeng, G., Yang, C., & Hollebone, B. (2004). Characterization and identification of the Detroit River mystery oil spill (2002). Journal of Chromatography A, 1038(1–2), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2004.03.004.
Wang, M. C., Chen, Y. T., Chen, S. H., Chien, S. C., & Sunkara, S. V. (2012). Phytoremediation of pyrene contaminated soils amended with compost and planted with ryegrass and alfalfa. Chemosphere, 87(3), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.12.063.
White, P. A. (2002). The genotoxicity of priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in complex mixtures. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 515(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5718(02)00017-7.
Wickramasinghe, A. P., Karunaratne, D. G. G. P., & Sivakanesan, R. (2011). PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Concentrations, source characterization and estimating their risk in urban, suburban and rural areas in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Atmospheric Environment, 45(16), 2642–2650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.067.
Wild, S. R., & Jones, K. C. (1995). Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and budget. Environmental Pollution, 88(1), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(95)91052-M.
Williamson, D. G., Loehr, R. C., & Kimura, Y. (1998). Release of chemicals from contaminated soils. Journal of Soil Contamination, 7(5), 543–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/10588339891334492.
Xie, Y., An, S., Wu, B., & Wang, W. (2006). Density-dependent root morphology and root distribution in the submerged plant Vallisneria natans. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 57(1–2), 195–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.06.001.
Zakaria, M. P., Takada, H., Tsutsumi, S., Ohno, K., Yamada, J., Kouno, E., & Kumata, H. (2002). Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rivers and estuaries in Malaysia: a widespread input of petrogenic PAHs. Environmental Science & Technology, 36(9), 1907–1918. https://doi.org/10.1021/es011278.
Zhang, W. (2015). Batch washing of saturated hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from crude oil contaminated soils using bio-surfactant. Journal of Central South University, 22(3), 895–903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-015-2599-2.
Zhang, Z., Rengel, Z., Chang, H., Meney, K., Pantelic, L., & Tomanovic, R. (2012). Phytoremediation potential of Juncus subsecundus in soils contaminated with cadmium and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Geoderma, 175, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.01.020.
Zhou, W., & Zhu, L. (2005). Solubilization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by anionic–nonionic mixed surfactant. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 255(1–3), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2004.12.039.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gitipour, S., Sorial, G.A., Ghasemi, S. et al. Treatment technologies for PAH-contaminated sites: a critical review. Environ Monit Assess 190, 546 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6936-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6936-4