Abstract
The purpose of this study was to measure the impact of financial leverage on the performance of 424 Pakistani nonfinancial listed companies over the 2001–2017 period. Three measures of financial leverage, i.e., short-term debt (STDL), long-term debt (LTDL), and total debt (TLEVR), were applied to examine their impact on performance, i.e., sustainable growth (SGR), Tobin’s Q, return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE), and return on sales (ROS). Robust results obtained using the generalized method of moments (GMM) report a significant negative impact of financial leverage on performance. The results also confirm an inverted U-shaped relationship between financial leverage and performance, indicating that an increase in the financial leverage of Pakistani listed companies increases their performance up to a certain level, and after that, a further increase in financial leverage decreases their performance. The results further suggest that STDL is a main contributing source of debt that causes a higher risk of refinancing for companies and thus negatively affects performance. This study’s findings are useful for academics, management, policymakers, and regulators to understand the importance of financial leverage and to choose between STDL and LTDL to fund financial needs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abor J (2005) The effect of capital structure on profitability: an empirical analysis of listed firms in Ghana. J Risk Finance 6:438–445. https://doi.org/10.1108/15265940510633505
Abor J (2007) Debt policy and performance of SMEs: evidence from Ghanaian and South African firms. J Risk Finance 8:364–379. https://doi.org/10.1108/15265940710777315
Ahmed N, Afza T (2019) Capital structure, competitive intensity and firm performance: evidence from Pakistan. J Adv Manag Res 16:796–813. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAMR-02-2019-0018
Ahmed Sheikh N, Wang Z (2013) The impact of capital structure on performance: an empirical study of non-financial listed firms in Pakistan. Int J Commer Manag 23:354–368. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCoMA-11-2011-0034
Ahsan T (2016) Firm, industry, and country level determinants of capital structure: evidence from Pakistan. South Asian J Glob Bus Res 5:362–384. https://doi.org/10.1108/SAJGBR-05-2015-0036
Akhtar S, Javed B, Maryam A, Sadia H (2012) Relationship between financial leverage and financial performance: evidence from fuel & energy sector of Pakistan. Eur J Bus Manag 4:7–17
Al-Najjar B (2011) Revisiting the capital-structure puzzle: UK evidence. J Risk Finance 12:329–338. https://doi.org/10.1108/15265941111158505
Altman EI (1983) A complete guide to predicting, avoiding, and dealing with bankruptcy. Corporate Financial Distress, New York
Altman EI, Iwanicz-Drozdowska M, Laitinen EK, Suvas A (2017) Financial distress prediction in an international context: a review and empirical analysis of altman’s z-score model. J Int Financ Manag Account 28:131–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/jifm.12053
Arellano M, Bond S (1991) Some tests of specification for panel data: monte carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. Rev Econ Stud 58:277–297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968
Arellano M, Bover O (1995) Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. J Econ 68:29–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01642-D
Bae J, Kim S-J, Oh H (2017) Taming polysemous signals: the role of marketing intensity on the relationship between financial leverage and firm performance. Rev Financ Econ 33:29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rfe.2016.12.002
Baltagi B (2001) Econometric analysis of panel data, 2nd edn. Wiley, Chichester
Barry CB, Mihov VT (2015) Debt financing, venture capital, and the performance of initial public offerings. J Bank Finance 58:144–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2015.04.001
Berger AN, Bonaccorsi di Patti E (2006) Capital structure and firm performance: a new approach to testing agency theory and an application to the banking industry. J Bank Finance 30:1065–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2005.05.015
Blundell R, Bond S (1998) Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. J Econ 87:115–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8
Brealey RA (2001) Fundamentals of corporate finance. McGraw Hill, United States of America
Chang Y-C (2012) Strategy formulation implications from using a sustainable growth model. J Air Trans Manag 20:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2011.03.010
Cheng Y-S, Liu Y-P, Chien C-Y (2010) Capital structure and firm value in China: a panel threshold regression analysis. Afr J Bus Manag 4:2500–2507. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM.9000127
Dalci I (2018) Impact of financial leverage on profitability of listed manufacturing firms in China. Pac Account Rev 30:410–432. https://doi.org/10.1108/PAR-01-2018-0008
Damodar NG (2003) Basic econometrics, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, United States of America
Danso A (2019) Leverage and firm investment: the role of information asymmetry and growth. Int J Account Inf Manag 27:56–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJAIM-10-2017-0127
Datta S, Iskandar-Datta M, Raman K (2005) Managerial stock ownership and the maturity structure of corporate debt. J Finance 60:2333–2350. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2005.00800.x
Davydov D (2016) Debt structure and corporate performance in emerging markets. Res Int Bus Finance 38:299–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2016.04.005
Dawar V (2014) Agency theory, capital structure and firm performance: some Indian evidence. Manag Finance 40:1190–1206. https://doi.org/10.1108/MF-10-2013-0275
De La Bruslerie H, Latrous I (2012) Ownership structure and debt leverage: empirical test of a trade-off hypothesis on French firms. J Multinatl Financ Manag 22:111–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mulfin.2012.06.001
Demirgüç-Kunt A, Maksimovic V (1998) Law, finance, and firm growth. J Finance 53:2107–2137. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-1082.00084
Detthamrong U, Chancharat N, Vithessonthi C (2017) Corporate governance, capital structure and firm performance: evidence from Thailand. Res Int Bus Finance 42:689–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2017.07.011
Driffield N, Mahambare V, Pal S (2007) How does ownership structure affect capital structure and firm value? Recent evidence from East Asia 1. Econ Trans Inst Shange 15:535–573. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0351.2007.00291.x
Ferri MG, Jones WH (1979) Determinants of financial structure: a new methodological approach. J Finance 34:631–644. https://doi.org/10.2307/2327431
Gill A, Biger N, Mathur N (2011) The effect of capital structure on profitability: evidence from the United States. Int J Manag 28:3
Haris M, HongXing Y, Tariq G, Malik A, Javed HM (2019) Intellectual capital performance and profitability of banks: evidence from Pakistan. J Risk Financ Manag 12:2–56. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm12020056
Harris M, Raviv A (1991) The theory of capital structure. J Finance 46:297–355. https://doi.org/10.2307/2328697
Hausman JA (1978) Specification tests in econometrics. Econ J Econ Soc 46:1251–1271. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827
Higgins RC (1977) How much growth can a firm afford? Financ Manag 6:7–16. https://doi.org/10.2307/3665251
Huang L, Ying Q, Yang S, Hassan H (2019) Trade credit financing and sustainable growth of firms: empirical evidence from China. Sustainability 11:1032. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041032
Jaisinghani D, Kanjilal K (2017) Non-linear dynamics of size, capital structure and profitability: empirical evidence from Indian manufacturing sector. Asia Pac Manag Rev 22:159–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmrv.2016.12.003
Jensen MC (1986) Agency costs of free cash flow, corporate finance, and takeovers. Am Econ Rev 76:323–329
Jensen MC, Meckling WH (1976) Theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. J Financ Econ 3:305–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X
Jiraporn P, Liu Y (2008) Capital structure, staggered boards, and firm value. Financ Anal J 64:49–60. https://doi.org/10.2469/faj.v64.n1.7
Kent Baker H, Saadi S, Dutta S, Gandhi D (2007) The perception of dividends by Canadian managers: new survey evidence. Int J Manag Finance 3:70–91. https://doi.org/10.1108/17439130710721662
Kim EH (1978) A mean-variance theory of optimal capital structure and corporate debt capacity. J Finance 33:45–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.1978.tb03388.x
Kraus A, Litzenberger RH (1973) A State-preference model of optimal financial leverage. J Finance 28:911–922. https://doi.org/10.2307/2978343
Le TPV, Phan TBN (2017) Capital structure and firm performance: empirical evidence from a small transition country. Res Int Bus Finance 42:710–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2017.07.012
Lin F-L, Chang T (2011) Does debt affect firm value in Taiwan? A panel threshold regression analysis. Appl Econ 43:117–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840802360310
Majumdar SK, Chhibber P (1999) Capital structure and performance: evidence from a transition economy on an aspect of corporate governance. Public Choice 98:287–305. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018355127454
Mak YT, Kusnadi Y (2005) Size really matters: further evidence on the negative relationship between board size and firm value. Pac-Basin Finance J 13:301–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pacfin.2004.09.002
Margaritis D, Psillaki M (2010) Capital structure, equity ownership and firm performance. J Bank Finance 34:621–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2009.08.023
McMillan J, Woodruff C (1999) Interfirm relationships and informal credit in Vietnam. Q J Econ 114:1285–1320. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355399556278
Modigliani F, Miller MH (1958) The cost of capital, corporation finance and the theory of investment. Am Econ Rev 48:261–297
Modigliani F, Miller MH (1963) Corporate income taxes and the cost of capital: a correction. Am Econ Rev 53:433–443
Murray ZF, Goyal Vidhan K (2008) Trade-off and pecking order theories of debt. Handbook Emperical Corp Finance 2:135–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53265-7.50004-4
Myers SC (1977) Determinants of corporate borrowing. J Financ Econ 5:147–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(77)90015-0
Myers SC, Majluf NS (1984) Corporate financing and investment decisions when firms have information that investors do not have. J Financ Econ 13:187–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(84)90023-0
Pandey IM (2001) Capital structure and the firm characterstics: evidence from an emerging market. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.300221
Pattitoni P, Petracci B, Spisni M (2014) Determinants of profitability in the EU-15 area. Appl Financ Econ 24:763–775
Pi L, Timme SG (1993) Corporate control and bank efficiency. J Bank Finance 17:515–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4266(93)90050-N
Platt HD, Platt MB, Chen G (1995) Sustainable growth rate of firms in financial distress. J Econ Finance 19:147–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02920515
Ramli NA, Latan H, Solovida GT (2019) Determinants of capital structure and firm financial performance—A PLS-SEM approach: evidence from Malaysia and Indonesia. Q Rev Econ Finance 71:148–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2018.07.001
Ross SA (1977) The determination of financial structure: the incentive-signalling approach. Bell J Econ 8:23–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/3003485
Sadeghian NS, Latifi MM, Soroush S, Aghabagher ZT (2012) Debt policy and corporate performance: empirical evidence from Tehran stock exchange companies International. J Econ Finance 4:217. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijef.v4n11p217
Samo Asif H, Murad H (2019) Impact of liquidity and financial leverage on firm’s profitability—an empirical analysis of the textile industry of Pakistan. Res J Text Appar 23:291–305. https://doi.org/10.1108/RJTA-09-2018-0055
Scott JH Jr (1977) Bankruptcy, secured debt, and optimal capital structure. J Finance 32:1–19. https://doi.org/10.2307/2326898
Shahzad SJH, Ali P, Ahmad T, Ali S (2015) Financial leverage and corporate performance: does financial crisis owe an explanation? Pakistan. J Stat Oper Res 11:67–90. https://doi.org/10.18187/pjsor.v11i1.781
Smriti N (2018) The impact of intellectual capital on firm performance: a study of Indian firms listed in COSPI. J Intellect Capital 19:935–964. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-11-2017-0156
Stulz R (1990) Managerial discretion and optimal financing policies. J Financ Econ 26:3–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(90)90011-N
Twairesh AEM (2014) The impact of capital structure on firm’s performance evidence from Saudi Arabia. J Appl Finance Banking 4:1–12
Vithessonthi C, Tongurai J (2015) The effect of leverage on performance: domestically-oriented versus internationally-oriented firms. Res Int Bus Finance 34:265–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2015.02.016
Williams J (1987) Perquisites, risk, and capital structure. J Finance 42:29–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.1987.tb02548.x
Windmeijer F (2005) A finite sample correction for the variance of linear efficient two-step GMM estimators. J Econ 126:25–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.02.005
Wintoki MB, Linck JS, Netter JM (2012) Endogeneity and the dynamics of internal corporate governance. J Financ Econ 105:581–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2012.03.005
Xu J, Wang B (2018) Intellectual capital, financial performance and companies’ sustainable growth: evidence from the Korean manufacturing industry. Sustainability 10:4651. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124651
Yao H, Haris M, Tariq G (2018) Profitability determinants of financial institutions: evidence from banks in Pakistan International. J Financ Stud 6:53. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijfs6020053
Yao H, Haris M, Tariq G, Javaid HM, Khan MAS (2019) Intellectual capital, profitability, and productivity: evidence from Pakistani financial institutions. Sustainability 11:3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143842
Yazdanfar D (2015) Debt financing and firm performance: an empirical study based on Swedish data. J Risk Finance 16:102–118. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRF-06-2014-0085
Zeitun R, Tian GG (2014) Capital structure and corporate performance: evidence from Jordan. Australas Account Bus Finance J Forthcom. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2496174
Zhang KQ, Chen HH (2017) Environmental performance and financing decisions impact on sustainable financial development of chinese environmental protection enterprises. Sustainability 9:2260. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122260
Zou H, Xiao JZ (2006) The financing behaviour of listed Chinese firms. Br Account Rev 38:239–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2006.04.008
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the anonymous referees very much for their valuable comments and suggestions. This work would not have been possible without their support. We are also thankful to the editorial board for considering our work for the publication. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China No. 71973054.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Akhtar, M., Yusheng, K., Haris, M. et al. Impact of financial leverage on sustainable growth, market performance, and profitability. Econ Change Restruct 55, 737–774 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-021-09321-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-021-09321-z