Abstract
Purpose
Previous compassion scales measured correlates or consequences of compassion, included mindfulness in their definition and do not fully operationalize the affective, cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal skills involved in cultivating compassion. The proposed Compassion Questionnaires towards Self (CQS) and Others (CQO) aim to operationalize compassion towards self and others by grounding them in affective, cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal dimensions with each representing a set of skills that can be cultivated through training and practice.
Methods
Based on the proposed theoretical approach, the CQS and CQO items were developed through consultations with a panel of eight graduate students and a group of ten experts in the field. A series of three studies were conducted to validate the questionnaires and test their clinical utility.
Results
Results from the three studies suggested the merging of the affective and cognitive dimensions, yielding three independent dimensions for both the CQS and CQO. These findings were additionally supported by convergent and discriminant evidence. In addition, results suggested that CQS and CQO subscales’ scores are moderately associated with mindfulness measures and are sensitive to mindfulness training or meditation practice and experience.
Conclusions.
The CQS and CQO are the first questionnaires that operationalize compassion towards self and others as sets of affective, cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal skills/abilities that are independent from mindfulness, and they have important theoretical and practical implications. Limitations as well as theoretical and practical implications of the CQS and CQO are thoroughly discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of the current research are not publicly available as per restrictions posed by the ethics certificate from McGill University. The code for statistical analyses is available upon request.
References
Aspy, D. J., & Proeve, M. (2017). Mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation. Psychological Reports, 120(1), 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116685867
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
Baião, R., Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., & Carvalho, S. (2015). Forms of self-criticising/attacking & self-reassuring scale: Psychometric properties and normative study. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 88(4), 438–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12049
Bandalos, D. L., & Finney, S. J. (2010). Factor analysis: Exploratory and confirmatory. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), The reviewer’s guide to quantitative methods in the social sciences (pp. 93–114). Routledge.
Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
Barrett, L. F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(1), 20–46. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2
Batson, C. D., Fultz, J., & Schoenrade, P. A. (1987). Distress and empathy: Two qualitatively distinct vicarious emotions with different motivational consequences. Journal of Personality, 55(1), 19–39.
Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond. Guilford Press.
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
Bodie, G. D. (2011). The active-empathic listening scale (AELS): Conceptualization and evidence of validity within the interpersonal domain. Communication Quarterly, 59(3), 277–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2011.583495
Braehler, C., Gumley, A., Harper, J., Wallace, S., Norrie, J., & Gilbert, P. (2013). Exploring change processes in compassion focused therapy in psychosis: Results of a feasibility randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12009
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Burg, J. M., Probst, T., Heidenreich, T., & Michalak, J. (2017). Development and psychometric evaluation of the body mindfulness questionnaire. Mindfulness, 8, 807–818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0659-9
Cleare, S., Gumley, A., Cleare, C. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018). An investigation of the factor structure of the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 9(2), 618–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0803-1
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396.
Condon, P., Desbordes, G., Miller, W. B., & DeSteno, D. (2013). Meditation increases compassionate responses to suffering. Psychological Science, 24(10), 2125–2127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613485603
Coroiu, A., Kwakkenbos, L., Moran, C., Thombs, B., Albani, C., Bourkas, S., Zenger, M., Brahler, E., & Körner, A. (2018). Structural validation of the self-compassion scale with a German general population sample. PLoS ONE, 13(2), e0190771. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190771
Costa, J., Marôco, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Castilho, P. (2016). Validation of the psychometric properties of the self-compassion scale: Testing the factorial validity and factorial invariance of the measure among borderline personality disorder, anxiety disorder, eating disorder and general populations. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 23(5), 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1974
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Crosby, K., & Skilton, A. (1998). The Bodhicaryāvatāra. Oxford University Press.
Dahl, C. J., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2016). Cognitive processes are central in compassion meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(3), 161–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.12.005
Davidson, R. J., Harrington, A., & Rosch, E. (2003). Visions of compassion: Western scientists and Tibetan Buddhists examine human nature. Contemporary Psychology [APA Review of Books], 48(3), 330.
Davidson, R. J., James, W., & Harrington, A. (2002). Visions of compassion: Western scientists and Tibetan Buddhists examine human nature. Oxford University Press.
de Winter, J. C. F., & Dodou, D. (2012). Factor recovery by principal axis factoring and maximum likelihood factor analysis as a function of factor pattern and sample size. Journal of Applied Statistics, 39(4), 695–710. https://doi.org/10.1080/02664763.2011.610445
DiCaccavo, A. (2002). Investigating individuals’ motivations to become counselling psychologists: The influence of early caretaking roles within the family. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 75(4), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608302321151943
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
Feldman, C., & Kuyken, W. (2011). Compassion in the landscape of suffering. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564831
Gerbing, D. W., & Hamilton, J. G. (1996). Viability of exploratory factor analysis as a precursor to confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 3(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519609540030
Gilbert, P. (2006). Compassion: Conceptualizations, research and use in psychotherapy. Routledge.
Gilbert, P. (2009). The compassionate mind: A new approach to life’s challenges. Constable and Robinson.
Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy: The CBT distinctive features. Routledge.
Gilbert, P. (2014). The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(1), 6–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12043
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Duarte, C., Matos, M., Kolts, R., Stubbs, J., Ceresatto, L., Duarte, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Basran, J. (2017). The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others. Journal of Compassionate Health Care, 4(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40639-017-0033-3
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Mitra, R., Richter, A., Franks, L., Mills, A., Bellew, R., & Gale, C. (2009). An exploration of different types of positive affect in students and patients with bipolar disorder. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 6, 135–143.
Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807
Goldin, P. R., & Jazaieri, H. (2017). The compassion cultivation training (CCT) Program. In J. R. Doty & E. Seppälä (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of compassion science. Oxford University Press.
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
Gu, J., Baer, R., Cavanagh, K., Kuyken, W., & Strauss, C. (2020). Development and psychometric properties of the Sussex-Oxford compassion scales (SOCS). Assessment, 27(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119860911
Hayton, J. C., Allen, D. G., & Scarpello, V. (2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104263675
Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford happiness questionnaire: A compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(7), 1073–1082. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00213-6
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion, 8, 720–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013237
Huysamen, G. (2006). Coefficient alpha: Unnecessarily ambiguous; unduly ubiquitous. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(4), 34–40. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v32i4.242
Inwood, E., & Ferrari, M. (2018). Mechanisms of change in the relationship between self-compassion, emotion regulation, and mental health: A systematic review. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 10(2), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12127
Jinpa, T. L., & Weiss, L. (2013). Compassion cultivation training (CCT). In T. Singer & M. Boltz (Eds.), Compassion: bridging practice and science. Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences.
Kanov, J. M., Maitlis, S., Worline, M. C., Dutton, J. E., Frost, P. J., & Lilius, J. M. (2004). Compassion in organizational life. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(6), 808–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203260211
Kelly, A. C., & Carter, J. C. (2015). Self-compassion training for binge eating disorder: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 88(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12044
Kelly, A. C., & Dupasquier, J. (2016). Social safeness mediates the relationship between recalled parental warmth and the capacity for self-compassion and receiving compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.017
Khoury, B. (2018). Mindfulness: Embodied and embedded. Mindfulness, 9(4), 1037–1042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0858-z
Khoury, B. (2019). Compassion: Embodied and embedded. Mindfulness, 10(11), 2363–2374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01211-w
Khoury, B., & Dionne, F. (2020). Les dimensions incarnée et interpersonnelle de la compassion. Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 178(1), 3–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amp.2020.11.018
Khoury, B., Dionne, F., & Grégoire, S. (2019). La pleine conscience incarnée: Un concept unificateur entre les traditions orientales et occidentales de la pleine conscience. Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 177(7), 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amp.2018.04.010
Khoury, B., Grégoire, S., & Dionne, F. (2020). La dimension interpersonnelle de la pleine conscience. Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 178(3), 239–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amp.2018.10.018
Khoury, B., Knäuper, B., Pagnini, F., Trent, N., Chiesa, A., & Carrière, K. (2017). Embodied mindfulness. Mindfulness, 8(5), 1160–1171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0700-7
Khoury, B., Vergara, R. C., Sadowski, I., & Spinelli, C. (2021). Embodied mindfulness questionnaire: Scale development and validation. Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911211059856
Khoury, B., Vergara, R. C., & Spinelli, C. (2022). Interpersonal mindfulness questionnaire: Scale development and validation. Mindfulness, 13(4), 1007–1031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01855-1
Khoury, B., Vergara, R. C., Spinelli, C., & Sadowski, I. (2023a). Embodied mindfulness questionnaire (EMQ). In O. N. Medvedev, C. U. Krägeloh, R. J. Siegert, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of assessment in mindfulness research. Springer.
Khoury, B., Vergara, R. C., Spinelli, C., & Sadowski, I. (2023b). Interpersonal mindfulness questionnaire (IMQ). In O. N. Medvedev, C. U. Krägeloh, R. J. Siegert, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of assessment in mindfulness research. Springer.
Kirby, J. N. (2017). Compassion interventions: The programmes, the evidence, and implications for research and practice. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(3), 432–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12104
Kirby, J. N., Day, J., & Sagar, V. (2019). The ‘Flow’ of compassion: A meta-analysis of the fears of compassion scales and psychological functioning. Clinical Psychology Review, 70, 26–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.03.001
Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003
Ko, C. M., Grace, F., Chavez, G. N., Grimley, S. J., Dalrymple, E. R., & Olson, L. E. (2018). Effect of seminar on compassion on student self-compassion, mindfulness and well-being: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of American College Health, 66(7), 537–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1431913
Krieger, T., Reber, F., von Glutz, B., Urech, A., Moser, C. T., Schulz, A., & Berger, T. (2019). An internet-based compassion-focused intervention for increased self-criticism: A randomized controlled trial. Behavior Therapy, 50(2), 430–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2018.08.003
Lavelle, B. D. (2017). Compassion in context: Tracing the Buddhist roots of secular, compassion-based contemplative. In E. M. Seppala, E. Simon-Thomas, S. L. Brown, M. C. Worline, C. D. Cameron, & J. R. Doty (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of compassion science (pp. 17–25). Oxford University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.
Leaviss, J., & Uttley, L. (2015). Psychotherapeutic benefits of compassion-focused therapy: An early systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 45(5), 927–945. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002141
Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1995). Measuring belongingness: The social connectedness and the social assurance scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.232
Lim, D., & DeSteno, D. (2016). Suffering and compassion: The links among adverse life experiences, empathy, compassion, and prosocial behavior. Emotion, 16(2), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000144
López, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., & Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the self-compassion scale’s total score: Self-compassion versus self-criticism. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940
Lovibond, S., & Lovibond, P. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
Luo, X., Qiao, L., & Che, X. (2018). Self-compassion modulates heart rate variability and negative affect to experimentally induced stress. Mindfulness, 9(5), 1522–1528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0900-9
MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.1.84
Maitreya, A., Taye, J. K. L., & Gyamtso, K. T. (2018). Buddha nature: the Mahayana Uttaratantra Shastra with commentary. Shambhala Publications.
Marsh, H. W., Fraser, M. I., Rakhimov, A., Ciarrochi, J., & Guo, J. (2023). The bifactor structure of the self-compassion scale: Bayesian approaches to overcome exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) limitations. Psychological Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001247
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
Muris, P., Otgaar, H., & Petrocchi, N. (2016). Protection as the mirror image of psychopathology: Further critical notes on the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 7(3), 787–790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0509-9
Neff, K. D. (2003a). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250.
Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2004). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 9(2), 27–37.
Neff, K. D. (2019). Setting the record straight about the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 10(1), 200–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1061-6
Neff, K. D. (2020). Commentary on Muris and Otgaar (2020): Let the empirical evidence speak on the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 11(8), 1900–1909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01411-9
Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74(1), 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
Orcan, F. (2018). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Which one to use first? Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology, 9(4), 414–421. https://doi.org/10.21031/epod.394323
Peters, G. (2014). The Alpha and the Omega of scale reliability and validity: Why and how to abandon Cronbach’s Alpha. European Health Psychologist, 16(2), 56–69.
Pommier, E. (2010). The compassion scale. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (855633530).
Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Tóth-Király, I. (2020). The development and validation of the compassion scale. Assessment, 27(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119874108
Pratscher, S. D., Rose, A. J., Markovitz, L., & Bettencourt, A. (2018). Interpersonal mindfulness: Investigating mindfulness in interpersonal interactions, co-rumination, and friendship quality. Mindfulness, 9(4), 1206–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0859-y
R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In R foundation for statistical computing. https://www.R-project.org/
Raîche, G., Walls, T. A., Magis, D., Riopel, M., & Blais, J.-G. (2013). Non-graphical solutions for Cattell’s scree test. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 9(1), 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000051
Reio, T. G., & Shuck, B. (2015). Exploratory factor analysis: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 17(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422314559804
Rosenberg, E. L., Zanesco, A. P., King, B. G., Aichele, S. R., Jacobs, T. L., Bridwell, D. A., MacLean, K. A., Shaver, P. R., Ferrer, E., Sahdra, B. K., Lavy, S., Wallace, B. A., & Saron, C. D. (2015). Intensive meditation training influences emotional responses to suffering. Emotion, 15, 775–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000080
Schmitt, T. A. (2011). Current methodological considerations in exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(4), 304–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282911406653
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The emerging role of Buddhism in clinical psychology: Toward effective integration. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(2), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035859
Sijtsma, K. (2009). On the use, the misuse, and the very limited usefulness of Cronbach’s alpha. Psychometrika, 74(1), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-008-9101-0
Spinelli, C., Ibrahim, M., & Khoury, B. (revised and resubmitted). Enhancing ambiguity tolerance in counsellors-in-training: A pilot program. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy
Sprecher, S., & Fehr, B. (2005). Compassionate love for close others and humanity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22(5), 629–651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407505056439
Spreng, R. N., McKinnon, M. C., Mar, R. A., & Levine, B. (2009). The Toronto empathy questionnaire: Scale development and initial validation of a factor-analytic solution to multiple empathy measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(1), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802484381
Strauss, C., Lever Taylor, B., Gu, J., Kuyken, W., Baer, R., Jones, F., & Cavanagh, K. (2016). What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures. Clinical Psychology Review, 47, 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004
Syakur, M. A., Khotimah, B. K., Rochman, E. M. S., & Satoto, B. D. (2018). Integration K-means clustering method and Elbow method for identification of the best customer profile cluster. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 336, 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/336/1/012017
Tóth-Király, I., & Neff, K. D. (2020). Is self-compassion universal? Support for the measurement invariance of the self-compassion scale across populations. Assessment, 28(1), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120926232
Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2013). Modern applied statistics with S-PLUS. Springer Science & Business Media.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Williams, M. J., Dalgleish, T., Karl, A., & Kuyken, W. (2014). Examining the factor structures of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire and the self-compassion scale. Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035566
Wispé, L. (1991). The psychology of sympathy. Plenum.
Yang, Y., Zhang, M., & Kou, Y. (2016). Self-compassion and life satisfaction: The mediating role of hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 98, 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.086
Yarnell, L. M., Neff, K. D., Davidson, O. A., & Mullarkey, M. (2019). Gender differences in self-compassion: Examining the role of gender role orientation. Mindfulness, 10(6), 1136–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1066-1
Yarnell, L. M., Stafford, R. E., Neff, K. D., Reilly, E. D., Knox, M. C., & Mullarkey, M. (2015). Meta-analysis of gender differences in self-compassion. Self and Identity, 14(5), 499–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2015.1029966
Zeng, X., Wei, J., Oei, T. P., & Liu, X. (2016). The Self-compassion scale is not validated in a Buddhist sample. Journal of Religion and Health, 55(6), 1996–2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0205-z
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self-compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7(3), 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Emma Schmelefske, Lenna Anand, Matthew Fleischmann, Megan Per, Isabel Sadowski, Melanie Wisener, and Viktoriya Manova, who were among the graduate students providing feedback about the scales and items. We also would like to thank the ten experts on the field who guided the development of the compassion questionnaires and finally Carolina Bacalao who worked on LimeSurvey. This work was supported by Centro Nacional de Inteligencia Artificial CENIA, FB210017, FINANCIAMIENTO BASAL PARA CENTRO CIENTIFICOS Y TECNOLOGICOS DE EXCELENCIA de ANID.
Funding
Authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)—Insight Development Grant (IDG # 430-2021-00078) and McGill Internal Social Sciences and Humanities Development Grants.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
BK designed the instrument, subject of validation, conducted Study One and Two with the help of RCV and CS, wrote the general introduction and discussion and well as the discussion sections of Studies One, Two, and Three, and helped in writing the methods and results sections of all studies. RCV conducted the analyses pertaining to Study One and Study Two, wrote the methods and results sections of Study One and Study Two and contributed to the design of the instrument and to the editing of the whole paper. CS conducted Study Three, analyzed the data pertaining to Study Three, helped in some of the analyzes pertaining to Study Two, wrote the methods and results sections of Study Three, and was heavily involved in the editing of the whole paper. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Bassam Khoury, Rodrigo C. Vergara, and Christina Spinelli that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
The three studies reported in this manuscript received ethics approval at the host university (i.e., McGill).
Informed Consent
Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Animal Rights
No animal was involved in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Khoury, B., Vergara, R.C. & Spinelli, C. Compassion Questionnaires: Scales Development and Validation. Cogn Ther Res 47, 1006–1032 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-023-10416-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-023-10416-2