Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Development and Validation of the Current Experiences of Warmth and Safeness Scale in Community and Residential Care Adolescents

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Child Psychiatry & Human Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Interpersonal experiences of warmth and safeness have a key role on emotion regulation and social development during childhood and adolescence. This paper presents a new and brief scale designed to assess the adolescents’ perception of current experiences of warmth and safeness (CEWSS-A). Its dimensionality and psychometric properties were investigated using a Portuguese sample of 453 adolescents from the community and 319 adolescents from residential care facilities. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 12-item scale has a one-factor measurement model. The CEWSS-A showed adequate internal consistency in the different samples (α > .92) and construct validity in relation to external variables. The CEWSS-A proved to be group invariant. Community adolescents reported a higher frequency of current experiences of warmth and safeness in comparison with residential care participants, and boys showed significantly higher scores than girls, within both samples. The CEWSS-A is an appropriate self-report measure for clinical and research purposes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Portuguese residential care homes (RCH) may vary in the number of children and youngsters fostered and may be mixed or segregated by gender. Most of the placements (89%) are due to history of maltreatment (neglect and psychological, physical and sexual abuse), and the remaining are related with abandonment by caregivers or the lack of family support [32]. Each RCH has a technical team (e.g. board members, psychologists, social workers), and education/support staff (e.g. educators, educational assistants).

References

  1. Cacioppo JT, Berston GG, Sheridan JF, McClintock MK (2000) Multilevel integrative analysis of human behaviour: social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches. Psychol Bull 126:829–884. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.126.6.829

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. MacDonald KB (1992) Warmth as a developmental construct: an evolutionary analysis. Child Dev 63:753–773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Gilbert P (2010) Compassion focused therapy. Routledge, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  4. Depue RA, Morrone-Strupinsky JV (2005) A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Behav Brain Sci 28:313–350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05260065

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Gilbert P, McEwan K, Mitra R, Richter A, Franks L, Mills A et al (2009) An exploration of different types of positive affect in students and patients with a bipolar disorder. Clin Neuropsychiatry 6:135–143

    Google Scholar 

  6. Gilbert P (2015) An evolutionary approach to emotion in mental health with a focus on affiliative emotions. Emot Rev 7:230–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073915576552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Gilbert P (2005) Compassion: conceptualization, research and use in psychotherapy. Routledge, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  8. Matos M, Pinto-Gouveia J, Duarte C (2013) Internalizing early memories of shame and lack of safeness and warmth: the mediating role of shame on depression. Behav Cogn Psychother 41:479–493

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Kelly AC, Dupasquier J (2016) Social safeness mediates the relationship between recalled parental warmth and the capacity for self-compassion and receiving compassion. Pers Individ Differ 89:157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Gilbert P, McEwan K, Matos M, Rivis A (2011) Fears of compassion: development of three self-report measures. Psychol Psychother 84:239–255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gilbert P, Baldwin MW, Irons C, Baccus JR, Palmer M (2006) Self-criticism and self-warmth: an imagery study exploring their relation to depression. J Cogn Psychother 20:183–200. https://doi.org/10.1891/jcop.20.2.183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. WHO Regional Office for Europe (2018) Factsheet for World Mental Health Day 2018: adolescent mental health in the European Region: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/383891/adolescent-mh-fs-eng.pdf

  13. Polanczyk G, Salum G, Sugaya L, Caye A, Rohde L (2015) Annual research review: a meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 56:345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12381

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Wolfe DA, Mash EJ (2006) Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: nature, assessment, and treatment. The Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  15. Schulenberg J, Bryant A, O’Malley P (2004) Taking hold of some kind of life: how developmental tasks relate to trajectories of well-being during the transition to adulthood. Dev Psychopathol 16:1119–1140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579404040167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Irons C, Gilbert P (2005) Evolved mechanisms in adolescent anxiety and depression symptoms: the role of the attachment and social rank systems. J Adolesc 28:325–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.07.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. O’Connor M, Sanson AV, Toumbourou JW, Norrish J, Olsson CA (2017) Does positive mental health in adolescence longitudinally predict healthy transitions in young adulthood? J Happiness Stud 18:177–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9723-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Steinberg L (2005) Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends Cogn Sci 9:69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Courtois CA (2004) Complex trauma, complex reactions: assessment and treatment. Psychother Theor Res Pract Train 41:412–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/1942-9681.S.1.86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Hawkins-Rodgers Y (2007) Adolescents adjusting to a group home environment: a residential care model of re-organizing attachment behaviour and building resiliency. Child Youth Serv Rev 29:1131–1141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Campos J, Ducharne MB, Dias P, Rodrigues S, Martins AC, Leal M (2019) Emotional and behavioral problems and psychosocial skills in adolescents in residential care. Child Adolesc Soc Work J. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0594-9

  22. Wallis P, Steele H (2001) Attachment representations in adolescence: further evidence from psychiatric residential settings. Attach Hum Dev 3:259–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Mota CP, Costa M, Matos PM (2016) Resilience and deviant behavior among institutionalized adolescents: the relationship with significant adults. Child Adolesc Soc Work 33:313–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0429-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Bravo B, del Valle J (2003) Las redes de apoyo social de los adolescentes acogidos en residencias de protección. Un análisis comparativo com población normative [Social support networks of adolescents in residential care centers. A comparative analysis with normative population]. Psicothema 15:136–142

    Google Scholar 

  25. Li J, Julian MM (2012) Developmental relationships as the active ingredient: a unifying working hypothesis of ‘what works’ across intervention settings. Am J Orthopsychiatry 82:157–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01151.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Gilbert P, Cheung MSP, Grandfield T, Campey F, Irons C (2003) Recall of threat and submissiveness in childhood: development of a new scale and its relationship with depression, social comparison and shame. Clin Psychol Psychother 10:108–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Richter A, Gilbert P, McEwan K (2009) Development of an early memories of warmth and safeness scale and its relationship to psychopathology. Psychol Psychother 82:171–184. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608308x395213

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Cunha M, Xavier A, Martinho MI, Matos M (2014) Measuring positive emotional memories in adolescents: psychometric properties and confirmatory factor analysis of the early memories of warmth and safeness scale. Rev Int Psicol Ter Psicol 14:245–259

    Google Scholar 

  29. Vagos P, Silva DR, Brazão N, Rijo D, Gilbert P (2016) The early memories of warmth and safeness scale for adolescents: cross-sample validation of the complete and brief versions. Clin Psychol Psychother 24:793–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2059

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Tahirović S, Jusić M (2016) Earliest memories, positive emotional memories of warmth and safeness, and attachment style in adolescent. Epip J Transd Stud 9:149–160

    Google Scholar 

  31. Instituto Nacional de Estatística (2011) Classificação Portuguesa das profissões 2010 [2010 Portuguese classification of professions]. Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Lisboa

    Google Scholar 

  32. Departamento de Desenvolvimento Social (2019) Casa 2018 – Relatório de caracterização anual da situação de acolhimento das crianças e jovens [Annual report on the characterization of youth in out-of-home placement]. Portugal, Instituto da Segurança Social, I.P. Retrieved from: http://www.segsocial.pt/documents/10152/16662972/Relat%C3%B3rio_CASA2018/f2bd8e0a-7e57-4664-ad1e-f1cebcc6498e

  33. Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH (1995) The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behav Res Ther 33:335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Pais-Ribeiro JL, Honrado A, Leal I (2004) Contribuição para o estudo da adaptação portuguesa das escalas de ansiedade, depressão, stress de Lovibond e Lovibond [Contribution for the Portuguese validation of depression, anxiety and stress scales of Lovibond and Lovibond]. Psychologica 36:235–246

    Google Scholar 

  35. Watson D, Clark L, Tellegen A (1988) Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 54:1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Galinha IC, Pais-Ribeiro JL (2005) Contribuição para o estudo da versão portuguesa da Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): II – Estudo psicométrico [Contribution to the study of the Portuguese version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): II - Psychomethic study]. Analise Psicologica 23:219–227. https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Pommier EA (2011) The Compassion Scale. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences 72:1174

    Google Scholar 

  38. Sousa R, Paulo M, Brazão N, Castilho P, Rijo D (2017) Measuring compassion towards others: dimensionality of the compassion scale in community adolescents and in adolescents with behavioural disorders (manuscript in preparation)

  39. Marsee MA, Barry CT, Childs KK, Frick PJ, Kimonis ER, Munoz LC et al (2011) Assessing the forms and functions of aggression using self-report: factor structure and invariance of the Peer Conflict Scale in youths. Psychol Assess 23:792–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Vagos P, Rijo D, Santos IM, Marsee MA (2014) Forms and functions of aggression in adolescents: Validation of the Portuguese version of the Peer Conflict Scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 36:570–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9421-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Hair F, Black C, Babin J, Anderson E (2009) Multivariate data analysis, 7th edn. Prentice, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  42. Fan XF, Miller BC, Park K, Winward BW, Christensen M, Grotevant HD et al (2006) Exploratory study about inaccuracy and invalidity in adolescent self-report surveys. Field Methods 18:223–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/152822X06289161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. DeVellis R (2012) Scale development: theory and applications, 3rd edn. SAGE, Thousand Oaks

    Google Scholar 

  44. Hu L, Bentler P (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Modeling 61:1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Dimitrov DM (2010) Testing for factorial invariance in the context of construct validation. Meas Eval Couns Dev 43:121–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Chen FF (2007) Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Struct Equ Modeling 14:464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Fritz CO, Morris PE, Richler JJ (2012) Effect size estimates: current use, calculations, and interpretation. J Exp Psychol Gen 14:2–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Muthén LK, Muthén BO (2015) Mplus user’s guide, 7th edn. Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  49. Dancey CP, Reidy J (2007) Statistics without maths for psychology, 4th ed. Pearson Education, Welwyn Garden City

    Google Scholar 

  50. Rushton A, Minnis H (2008) Residential and foster family care. In: Rutter M, Bishop DVM, Pine DS, Scott S, Stevenson J, Taylor E, Thapar A (eds) Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry, 5th edn. Blackwell Publishing Limited, Oxford, pp 487–501

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  51. Rueger S, Malecki C, Demaray M (2010) Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: comparisons across gender. J Youth Adolesc 39:47–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9368-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Leadbeater B, Kuperminc G, Blatt S, Hertzog D (1999) A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Dev Psychol 35:1268–1282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Eschenbeck H, Kohlmann CW, Lohaus A (2007) Gender differences in coping strategies in children and adolescents. J Individ Differ 28:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001.28.1.18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Verhulst FC, Achenbach TM, van der Ende J, Erol N, Lambert MC, Leung PW et al (2003) Comparisons of problems reported by youths from seven countries. Am J Psychiatry 160:1479–1485

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was developed within the framework of a PhD Grant, funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (SFRH/BD/132327/2017).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

    Laura Santos M.D., Rúben Sousa M.D., Maria do Rosário Pinheiro Ph.D. & Daniel Rijo Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Laura Santos M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rúben Sousa M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maria do Rosário Pinheiro Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Daniel Rijo Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Santos M.D..

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

This research received approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the University of Coimbra (approved on 22 March 2018) and the Portuguese General Directorate of Education (n. °0638900001). All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Adolescents aged between 14 and 16 years old gave informed assent, while the older than 16 years old gave written informed consent. A written informed consent was also gathered from parents/legal representatives of all adolescent participants under 18 years old.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Santos, L., Sousa, R., Pinheiro, M. et al. Development and Validation of the Current Experiences of Warmth and Safeness Scale in Community and Residential Care Adolescents. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 52, 1118–1130 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01090-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01090-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation