Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Predict Depressive Symptom Trajectory from Early to Middle Adolescence

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Child Psychiatry & Human Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Major depressive disorder begins to increase in early adolescence and is associated with significant impairment (e.g., suicidality). Difficulties in emotion regulation (ER) have been associated with depressive symptoms; however, little research has examined this relation over time beginning in early adolescence. Starting when they were 11–14 years old, 246 adolescents (nboys = 126; nwhite = 158) completed self-report questionnaires on their ER at Time 1 and depressive symptoms every year for 2 years. Results revealed that overall difficulties in ER (and limited access to ER strategies) at Time 1 predicted depressive symptoms both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Gender moderated this relation cross-sectionally, such that higher overall ER difficulties at Time 1 was more strongly associated with higher depressive symptoms for girls than for boys. These findings suggest that depression prevention efforts should promote adaptive ER in early adolescence, particularly for girls, in order to prevent the increases in depressive symptoms seen into middle adolescence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Avenevoli S, Swendsen J, He JP, Burstein M, Merikangas KR (2015) Major depression in the national comorbidity survey–adolescent supplement: prevalence, correlates, and treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54:37–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Shaffer D (1996) Psychiatric diagnosis in child and adolescent suicide. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:339–348

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Rohde P, Noell J, Ochs L, Seeley JR (2001) Depression, suicidal ideation and STD-related risk in homeless older adolescents. J Adolesc 24:447–460

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Deykin EY, Levy JC, Wells V (1987) Adolescent depression, alcohol and drug abuse. Am J Public Health 77:178–182

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Glied S, Pine DS (2002) Consequences and correlates of adolescent depression. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 156:1009–1014

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Lehrer JA, Shrier LA, Gortmaker S, Buka S (2006) Depressive symptoms as a longitudinal predictor of sexual risk behaviors among US middle and high school students. Pediatrics 118:189–200

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hatzenbuehler ML, McLaughlin KA, Nolen-Hoeksema S (2008) Emotion regulation and internalizing symptoms in a longitudinal study of sexual minority and heterosexual adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49:1270–1278

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Cohen P, Cohen J, Kasen S, Velez CN, Hartmark C, Johnson J et al (1993) An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence—I. Age-and gender-specific prevalence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:851–867

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Twenge JM, Nolen-Hoeksema S (2002) Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the children’s depression inventory: a meta-analysis. J Abnorm Psychol 111:578–588

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Charbonneau AM, Mezulis AH, Hyde JS (2009) Stress and emotional reactivity as explanations for gender differences in adolescents’ depressive symptoms. J Youth Adolesc 38:1050–1058

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Chaplin TM, Aldao A (2013) Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull 139:735–765

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Aldao A (2011) Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms. Pers Individ Dif 51:704–708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Gross JJ (2001) Emotion regulation in adulthood: timing is everything. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 10:214–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Ge X, Conger RD, Elder GH Jr (2001) Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Dev Psychol 37:404–417

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Cole PM, Michel MK, Teti LO (2008) The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: a clinical perspective. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 59:73–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Silk JS, Steinberg L, Morris AS (2003) Adolescents emotion regulation in daily life: links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Dev 74:1869–1880

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Garnefski N, Kraaij V (2006) Relationships between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: a comparative study of five specific samples. Pers Individ Dif 40:1659–1669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Neumann A, van Lier PA, Gratz KL, Koot HM (2009) Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation difficulties in adolescents using the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Assessment 17:138–149

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Feng X, Keenan K, Hipwell AE et al (2009) Longitudinal associations between emotion regulation and depression in preadolescent girls: moderation by the caregiving environment. Dev Psychol 45:798–808

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Poon JA, Turpyn CC, Hansen A, Jacangelo J, Chaplin TM (2015) Adolescent substance use & psychopathology: interactive effects of cortisol reactivity and emotion regulation. Cognit Ther Res 40:368–380

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Kim J, Cicchetti D (2009) Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51:706–716

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Gratz KL, Roemer L (2004) Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 26:41–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Selby EA, Anestis MD, Joiner TE (2008) Understanding the relationship between emotional and behavioral dysregulation: emotional cascades. Behav Res Ther 46:593–611

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Hendryx MS, Haviland MG, Shaw DG (1991) Dimensions of alexithymia and their relationships to anxiety and depression. J Pers Assess 56:227–237

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Rieffe C, Rooij MD (2012) The longitudinal relationship between emotion awareness and internalising symptoms during late childhood. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 21:349–356

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Stange JP, Alloy LB, Flynn M, Abramson LY (2013) Negative inferential style, emotional clarity, and life stress: integrating vulnerabilities to depression in adolescence. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 42:508–518

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Davis B, Sheeber L, Hops H, Tildesley E (2000) Adolescent responses to depressive parental behaviors in problem-solving interactions: implications for depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol 28:451–465

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Aldao A, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Schweizer S (2010) Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 30:217–237

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Gross JJ, John OP (2003) Individual differences in two ER processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol 85:348–362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Smith GT, Guller L, Zapolski TC (2013) A comparison of two models of urgency. Clin Psychol Sci 1:266–275

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. D’Acremont M, Van der Linden M (2007) How is impulsivity related to depression in adolescence? Evidence from a French validation of the cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire. J Adolesc 30:271–282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Hallfors DD, Walle MW, Bauer D, Ford CA, Halpern CT (2005) Which comes first in adolescence—sex and drugs or depression? Am J Prev Med 29:163–170

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Stice E, Wade E, Bohon C (2007) Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol 116:198–207

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Klimes–Dougan B, Hastings PD, Granger DA, Usher BA, Zahn-Waxler C (2001) Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Dev Psychopathol 13:695–719

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Ordaz S, Luna B (2012) Sex differences in physiological reactivity to acute psychosocial stress in adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37:1135–1157

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Jackson B (2001) Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychol Women Q 25:37–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Säkkinen P, Kaltiala-Heino R, Ranta K, Haataja R, Joukamaa M (2007) Psychometric properties of the 20-item Toronto alexithymia scale and prevalence of alexithymia in a Finnish adolescent population. Psychosomatics 48:154–161

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Morgan JK, Olino TM, McMakin DL, Ryan ND, Forbes EE (2013) Neural response to reward as a predictor of increases in depressive symptoms in adolescence. Neurobiol Dis 52:66–74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Kovacs M (1992) Children’s depression inventory: Manual. Multi-Health Systems

  40. Bang YR, Park JH, Kim SH (2015) Cut-off scores of the children’s depression inventory for screening and rating severity in Korean adolescents. Psychiatry Investig 12:23–28

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Dubois DL, Felner RD, Bartels CL, Silverman MM (1995) Stability of self-reported depressive symptoms in a community sample of children and adolescents. J Clin Child Psychol 24:386–396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Raudenbush SE, Bryk AS, Congdon R (2011) HLM 7.00 for windows. Scientific Software International, Inc., Lincolnwood

    Google Scholar 

  43. Nezlek JB (2011) Multilevel modeling for social and personality psychology. SAGE Publications Ltd, Thousand Oaks

  44. Burwell RA, Shirk SR (2007) Subtypes of rumination in adolescence: associations between brooding, reflection, depressive symptoms, and coping. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 36:56–65

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Muris P (2002) Relationships between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal adolescent sample. Pers Individ Dif 32:337–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. van Eck M, Nicolson NA, Berkhof J (1998) Effects of stressful daily events on mood states: relationship to global perceived stress. J Pers Soc Psychol 75:1572–1585

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Watson D, Clark LA, Carey G (1988) Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnorm Psychol 97:346–353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Hill AL, Degnan KA, Calkins SD, Keane SP (2006) Profiles of externalizing behavior problems for boys and girls across preschool: the roles of emotion regulation and inattention. Dev Psychol 42:913–928

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Fernandez-Berrocal P, Alcaide R, Extremera N, Pizarro D (2006) The role of emotional intelligence in anxiety and depression among adolescents. Individ Differ Res 4:16–27

    Google Scholar 

  50. Petersen AC, Sarigiani PA, Kennedy RE (1991) Adolescent depression: why more girls? J Youth Adolesc 20:247–271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Usmiani S, Daniluk J (1997) Mothers and their adolescent daughters: relationship between self-esteem, gender role identity, body image. J Youth Adolesc 26:45–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Dahl RE, Gunnar MR (2009) Heightened stress responsiveness and emotional reactivity during pubertal maturation: implications for psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol 21:1–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Herting MM, Gautam P, Spielberg JM, Kan E, Dahl RE, Sowell ER (2014) The role of testosterone and estradiol in brain volume changes across adolescence: a longitudinal structural MRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 35:5633–5645

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Pine DS, Cohen E, Cohen P, Brook J (1999) Adolescent depressive symptoms as predictors of adult depression: moodiness or mood disorder? Am J Psychiatry 156:133–135

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Lewinsohn PM, Clarke GN, Seeley JR, Rohde P (1994) Major depression in community adolescents: age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:809–818

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hope TL, Adams C, Reynolds L, Powers D, Perez RA, Kelley ML (1999) Parent vs. self-report: contributions toward diagnosis of adolescent psychopathology. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 21:349–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health, including R01-DA033431 (PI: Chaplin) and F31-DA041790 (PI: Turpyn).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    Stefanie F. Gonçalves, Tara M. Chaplin, Caitlin C. Turpyn, Claire E. Niehaus & Timothy W. Curby

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA

    Rajita Sinha

  3. Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA

    Emily B. Ansell

Authors
  1. Stefanie F. Gonçalves
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tara M. Chaplin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Caitlin C. Turpyn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Claire E. Niehaus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Timothy W. Curby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rajita Sinha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Emily B. Ansell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stefanie F. Gonçalves.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gonçalves, S.F., Chaplin, T.M., Turpyn, C.C. et al. Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Predict Depressive Symptom Trajectory from Early to Middle Adolescence. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 50, 618–630 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019-00867-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019-00867-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation