Abstract
The purpose of this article is to systematically review the existing literature regarding intervention and prevention programs that ameliorate the negative effects of exposure to community violence (ECV) on children and adolescents. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review (PRISMA) Guidelines, we conducted a systematic review of the literature aimed at providing a synthesis of the extant Randomized Control Trials (RCT) and peer-reviewed empirical literature on intervention and prevention programs for those affected by ECV. Nine randomized controlled trials were identified: seven studies with elementary school students in the USA, one study with elementary school students in Colombia, and one study with middle school students in the USA. Most trials compared intervention and no-treatment control groups; three studies compared active interventions. The intervention and prevention trials conducted in school settings in the USA showed most impact on reducing internalizing and PTSD symptoms. The evidence base of intervention and prevention programs for child and adolescent exposure to community violence is very limited. This systematic review synthesizes extant evidence of the effectiveness of intervention programs in reducing internalizing and externalizing symptoms, PTSD, exposure to community violence, and in enhancing academic performance. More studies are needed to provide a better understanding of how interventions might ameliorate the adverse consequences of exposure to community violence.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
References marked with asterisk indicate studies included in the systematic review.
Aisenberg, E., & Ell, K. (2005). Contextualizing community violence and its effects. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,20(7), 855–871. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505276833.
Ali-Saleh, D. N., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2018). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms among Palestinian adolescents from Israel as consequences of their exposure to community violence: Are they moderated by their self-efficacy and collective efficacy? Child Abuse and Neglect, 79, 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.021.
Antunes, M. J. L., & Ahlin, E. M. (2017). Youth exposure to violence in the community: Towards a theoretical framework for explaining risk and protective factors. Aggression and Violent Behavior,34, 166–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.015.
Barrett, P., Lowry-Webster, H. M., & Holmes, J. M. (1998). FRIENDS program for children: Group leader’s manual. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press.
Bechger, T. M., Maris, G., Verstralen, H. H., & Béguin, A. A. (2003). Using classical test theory in combination with item response theory. Applied Psychological Measurement,27(5), 319–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621603257518.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester: Wiley.
Buka, S., Stichick, T., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. (2001). Exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,71(July), 298–310.
*Chaux, E., Barrera, M., Molano, A., Velásquez, A. M., Castellanos, M., Chaparro, M. P., et al. (2017). Classrooms in peace within violent contexts: Field evaluation of Aulas en Paz in Colombia. Prevention Science,18(7), 828–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0754-8.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Cooley, M. R., Turner, S. M., & Beidel, D. C. (1995). Assessing community violence: The children's report of exposure to violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,34(2), 201–208.
*Cooley-Strickland, M. R., Griffin, R. S., Darney, D., Otte, K., & Ko, J. (2011). Urban African American youth exposed to community violence: A school-based anxiety preventive intervention efficacy study. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community,39(2), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2011.556573.
DeCou, C. R., & Lynch, S. M. (2017). Assessing adult exposure to community violence: A review of definitions and measures. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse,18(1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015590590.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment,10, 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559504271287.
Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. (2001). The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,30(3), 376–384.
Foster, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009a). Toward a stress process model of children’s exposure to physical family and community violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review,12(2), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0049-0.
Foster, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009b). Toward a stress process model of children’s exposure to physical family and community violence. Clinical child and family psychology review,12(2), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0049-0.
Fowler, P. J., Toro, P. A., Tompsett, C. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community and family violence: Indirect effects of parental monitoring on externalizing problems. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community,37(4), 302–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852350903196308.
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,38(5), 581–586.
Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The Strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,7(3), 125–130.
Guterman, N. B., Cameron, M., & Staller, K. (2000). Definitional and measurement issues in the study of community violence among children and youths. Journal of Community Psychology,28(6), 571–587. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6629(200011)28:6%3c571:AID-JCOP3%3e3.0.CO;2-Q.
Guterman, N. B., Haj-Yahia, M. M., Vorhies, V., Ismayilova, L., & Leshem, B. (2010). Help-seeking and internal obstacles to receiving support in the wake of community violence exposure: The Case of Arab and Jewish Adolescents in Israel. Journal of Child and Family Studies,19(6), 687–696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9355-x.
Haj-Yahia, M. M., Leshem, B., & Guterman, N. B. (2013). The rates and characteristics of the exposure of Palestinian youth to community violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,28, 2223–2249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512475309.
Jain, S., & Cohen, A. K. (2013). Behavioral adaptation among youth exposed to community violence: A longitudinal multidisciplinary study of family, peer and neighborhood-level protective factors. Prevention Science,14(6), 606–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012-0344-8.
*Jaycox, L. H., Langley, A. K., Stein, B. D., Wong, M., Sharma, P., Scott, M., et al. (2009). Support for students exposed to trauma: A pilot study. School Mental Health,1(2), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-009-9007-8.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A. O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L. G., Fletcher, K. E., Pbert, L., et al. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry,149, 936–943.
*Kataoka, S., Jaycox, L. H., Wong, M., Nadeem, E., Langley, A., Tang, L., et al. (2011). Effects on school outcomes in low-income minority youth: Preliminary findings from a community-partnered study of a school trauma intervention. Ethnicity & Disease,21, 71–77.
*Kataoka, S. H., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Wong, M., Escudero, P., Tu, W., et al. (2003). A school-based mental health program for traumatized Latino immigrant children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,42(3), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200303000-00011.
*Kelly, P. J., Lesser, J., Cheng, A.-L., Osco-Sanchez, M., Martinez, E., Pineda, D., et al. (2010). A prospective randomized controlled trial of an interpersonal violence prevention program with a Mexican American community. Family & Community Health: The Journal of Health Promotion & Maintenance,33(3), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1097/FCH.0b013e3181e4bc34.
Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica,46, 305–315.
Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and health. The lancet,360(9339), 1083–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0.
Lambert, S. F., Nylund-Gibson, K., Copeland-Linder, N., & Ialongo, N. S. (2010). Patterns of community violence exposure during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology,46(3–4), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9344-7.
Lewis, S., & Clarke, M. (2001). Forest plots: Trying to see the wood and the trees. BMJ,322(7300), 1479–1480.
Löfving-Gupta, S., Lindblad, F., Stickley, A., Schwab-Stone, M., & Ruchkin, V. (2015). Community violence exposure and severe posttraumatic stress in suburban American youth: Risk and protective factors. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology,50(4), 539–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0965-2.
Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 445–479. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.445.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed1000097.
Nimon, K., Zientek, L. R., & Henson, R. K. (2012). The assumption of a reliable instrument and other pitfalls to avoid when considering the reliability of data. Frontiers in Psychology,3, 102. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00102.
Nicolon, P. H., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Latzman, N. E., Valle, L. A., Kuoh, H., Burton, T., et al. (2015). Prevalence of teen dating violence and co-occurring risk factors among middle school youth in high-risk urban communities. Journal of Adolescent Health,56(2), S5–S13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.07.019.
Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1997). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,25(1), 15–20.
Rosen, L., Manor, O., Engelhard, D., & Zucker, D. (2006). In defense of the randomized controlled trial for health promotion research. American Journal of Public Health,96(7), 1181–1186. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.061713.
*Santiago, C. D., Kataoka, S. H., Hu-Cordova, M., Alvarado-Goldberg, K., Maher, L. M., & Escudero, P. (2016). Preliminary evaluation of a family treatment component to augment a school-based intervention serving low-income families. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders,23(1), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426613503497.
Schwab-Stone, M., Koposov, R., Vermeiren, R., & Ruchkin, V. (2013). Cross-cultural findings on community violence exposure and internalizing psychopathology: Comparing adolescents in the United States, Russia, and Belgium. Child Psychiatry and Human Development,44(4), 516–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0344-8.
Shields, N., Nadasen, K., & Pierce, L. (2008). The effects of community violence on children in Cape Town, South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect,32(5), 589–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.07.010.
*Sibinga, E. M. S., Webb, L., Ghazarian, S. R., & Ellen, J. M. (2016). School-based mindfulness instruction: An RCT. Pediatrics,137(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-2532.
Sieger, K., Rojas-Vilches, A., Mckinney, C., & Renk, K. (2004). The effects and treatment of community violence in children and adolescents: What should be done? Trauma, Violence, & Abuse,5(3), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838004264342.
*Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Kataoka, S. H., Wong, M., Tu, W., Elliott, M. N., et al. (2003). A mental health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association,290(5), 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.603.
Sumner, S. A., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Hillis, S. D., Klevens, J., & Houry, D. (2015). Violence in the United States: Status, challenges, and opportunities. JAMA,314(5), 478–488. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.8371.
Trauma informed Intervention (2012, April). CBITS: General Information. Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/interventions/cbits_fact_sheet.pdf.
Velásquez, A. M., & Chaux, E. (2005). AVC–agresión, violencia & competencias.
Washington State Institute for Public Policy. (2019, December).Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)-based models for child trauma children's mental health: Trauma benefit-cost estimates. Retrieved from https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/BenefitCost/Program/155.
Funding
This research was partially supported by a Haruv-Israel Institute post-doctoral fellowship to the first author.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ali-Saleh Darawshy, N., Gewirtz, A. & Marsalis, S. Psychological Intervention and Prevention Programs for Child and Adolescent Exposure to Community Violence: A Systematic Review. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 23, 365–378 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-020-00315-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-020-00315-3