Abstract
Runaway and homeless youth (RHY) are dependent on the specialized settings that locate, engage, and serve them. Yet, little research has focused on the features of effective settings for RHY. The present qualitative study, grounded in the Youth Program Quality Assessment model, explored characteristics of higher quality organizations for RHY and gaps that remain from staff and RHY perspectives. A total of 29 diverse settings serving RHY in New York State were randomly selected for participation, and ranked on a quantitative program quality index. Within settings, we conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with program administrators (N = 30) and other staff (N = 24). Focus group interviews were conducted with RHY (N = 13 focus groups; N = 84 RHY). Data were analyzed using a systematic content analysis approach that was both theory-driven and inductive, comparing higher to lower quality settings. We found all settings provided vital services and experienced challenges, but higher quality settings ameliorated challenges through (1) a youth-centered program philosophy equally understood by staff and RHY; (2) developmentally appropriate relationships between staff and RHY that promoted autonomy; (3) a focus on short- and long-term goals within anticipated crises; and (4) ongoing internal quality assessment procedures. Within lower quality settings we found (1) difficulties retaining effective staff and (2) a primary focus on basic services and managing crises, but less attention to emotional support, exacerbated by (3) funding and other challenges emerging from the larger environment. The present study extends the literature on organizations for RHY by identifying characteristics of higher quality settings, and challenges that remain.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Avaliability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Adams, L. (2014). ‘Criminalising’ homelessness: Motivations, impacts and alternatives. Parity, 27(9), 6–8.
Altena, A. M., Brilleslijper-Kater, S. N., & Wolf, J. L. (2010). Effective interventions for homeless youth: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 38(6), 637–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2010.02.017.
Aviles, A., & Helfrich, C. (2004). Life skill service needs: Perspectives of homeless youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(4), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:Joyo.0000032641.82942.22.
Baer, J. S., Garrett, S. B., Beadnell, B., Wells, E. A., & Peterson, P. L. (2007). Brief motivational intervention with homeless adolescents: Evaluating effects on substance use and service utilization. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21(4), 582–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.21.4.582.
Bender, K., Thompson, S. J., McManus, H., Lantry, J., & Flynn, P. M. (2007). Capacity for survival: Exploring strengths of homeless street youth. Child and Youth Care Forum, 36(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-006-9029-4.
Boykin McElhaney, K., & Allen, J. P. (2001). Autonomy and adolescent social functioning: The moderating effect of risk. Child Development, 72(1), 220–235.
Cochran, B. N., Stewart, A. J., Ginzler, J. A., & Cauce, A. M. (2002). Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts. American Journal of Public Health, 92(5), 773–777.
Cooper, E. F. (2006). The runaway and homeless youth program: Administration, funding, and legislative actions. Retrieved from https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metacrs9962/m1/1/high_res_d/RL31933_2006Mar23.pdf.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Donabedian, A. (1996). The effectiveness of quality assurance. International Journal of Quality Health Care, 8(4), 401–407.
Eccles, J., & Appleton-Gootman, J. (Eds.). (2002). Community programs to promote positive youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Edidin, J. P., Ganim, Z., Hunter, S. J., & Karnik, N. S. (2012). The mental and physical health of homeless youth: A literature review. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43(3), 354–375.
Family and Youth Services Bureau. (2016). Transitional living program fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/fysb/resource/tlp-fact-sheet.
Feldmann, J., & Middleman, A. B. (2003). Homeless adolescents: Common clinical concerns. Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 14(1), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1053/spid.2003.127211.
Fong, R., Lubben, J., & Barth, R. P. (2017). Grand challenges for social work and society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Graneheim, U. H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001.
Gwadz, M., Cleland, C., Leonard, N., Bolas, J., Ritchie, A., Tabac, L., … Hirsh, M. (2017). Organizations serving runaway and homeless youth: Understanding their characteristics and effectiveness. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 398–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.01.016.
Gwadz, M. V., Gostnell, K., Smolenski, C., Willis, B., Nish, D., Nolan, T. C., … Ritchie, A. S. (2009). The initiation of homeless youth into the street economy. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 357–377.
Hagen, J. L., & Hutchison, E. (1988). Who’s serving the homeless? Journal of Contemporary Social Work, 69(8), 491–497.
Heinze, H. J., Jozefowicz, D. M. H., & Toro, P. A. (2010). Taking the youth perspective: Assessment of program characteristics that promote positive development in homeless and at-risk youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1365–1372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.004.
Holtschneider, C. (2016). From independence to interdependence: Redefining outcomes for transitional living programs for youth experiencing homelessness. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 97(3), 160–170.
Hopper, E. K., Bassuk, E. L., & Olivet, J. (2010). Shelter from the storm: Trauma-informed care in homelessness services settings. The Open Health Services and Policy Journal, 3, 80–100.
Hyde, J. (2005). From home to street: Understanding young people’s transitions into homelessness. Journal of Adolescence, 28(2), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.02.001.
Isaac, L. (2015). Addressing the issue of homeless youth as a society. Retrieved from http://www.socialjusticesolutions.org/2015/05/14/addressing-issue-homeless-youth-society/.
Karabanow, J., & Clement, P. (2004). Interventions with street youth: A commentary on the practice-based research literature. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 4(1), 93–108. https://doi.org/10.1093/brief-treatment/mhh007.
Keuroghlian, A. S., Shtasel, D., & Bassuk, E. L. (2014). Out on the street: A public health and policy agenda for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth who are homeless. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(1), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0098852.
Kidd, S. A., Miner, S., Walker, D., & Davidson, L. (2007). Stories of working with homeless youth: On being “mind-boggling. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(1), 16–34.
Leonard, N. R., Freeman, R., Ritchie, A. S., Gwadz, M. V., Tabac, L., Dickson, V. V., … Hirsh, M. (2017). “Coming from the place of walking with the youth- that feeds everything”: A mixed methods case study of a runaway and homeless youth organization. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34(5), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-016-0483-z.
Levesque, R. J. R. (2011). Runaway and homeless youth act. In R. J. R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of adolescence. New York: Springer.
Lloyd, C., King, R., & Chenoweth, L. (2002). Social work, stress and burnout: A review. Journal of Mental Health, 11(3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230020023642.
Marlatt, G. A., & Witkiewitz, K. (2002). Harm reduction approaches to alcohol use: Health promotion, prevention, and treatment. Addictive Behaviours, 27(6), 867–886.
McKenzie-Mohr, S., Coates, J., & McLeod, H. (2012). Responding to the needs of youth who are homeless: Calling for politicized trauma-informed intervention. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.09.008.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (Eds.). (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Morse, G. A., Calsyn, R. J., Miller, J., Rosenberg, P., West, L., & Gilliland, J. (1996). Outreach to homeless mentally ill people: Conceptual and clinical considerations. Community Mental Health Journal, 32(3), 261–274.
Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 13–22.
National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2009). Ending youth homelessness before it begins: Prevention and early intervention services for older adolescents. Retrieved from https://b.3cdn.net/naeh/5a3c6b2bf975ee8989_1bm6bhh9y.pdf.
National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2012). An emerging framework for ending unaccompanied youth homelessness. Retrieved from http://www.endhomelessness.org/library/entry/an-emerging-framework-for-ending-unaccompanied-youth-homelessness.
Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (2011). Understanding organizational behavior. Belmont: Cengage South-Western.
New York State Office of Children & Family Services. (2014). Runaway and homeless youth annual report. Retrieved from: https://ocfs.ny.gov/main/reports/RHYA%20Final%20Report%202014.pdf.
O’Connell, J. J. (2005). Premature mortality in homeless populations: A review of the literature. Nashville: National Health Care for the Homeless Council.
Pollio, D. E., Thompson, S. J., Tobias, L., Reid, D., & Spitznagel, E. (2006). Longitudinal outcomes for youth receiving runaway/homeless shelter services. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(5), 859–866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9098-6.
Raleigh-DuRoff, C. (2004). Factors that influence homeless adolescents to leave or stay living on the street. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21(6), 561–571.
Rew, L., Taylor-Seehafer, M., Thomas, N. Y., & Yockey, R. D. (2001). Correlates of resilience in homeless adolescents. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(1), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2001.00033.x.
Rivard, S. (2004). Information technology and organizational transformation: Solving the management puzzle. Oxford: Elsevier.
Shojania, K. G., & Grimshaw, J. M. (2005). Evidence-based quality improvement: The state of the science. Health Affairs, 24(1), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.24.1.138.
Slesnick, N., Dashora, P., Letcher, A., Erdem, G., & Serovich, J. (2009). A review of services and interventions for runaway and homeless youth: Moving forward. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(7), 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.01.006.
Slesnick, N., Feng, X., Guo, X., Brakenhoff, B., Carmona, J., Murnan, A., … McRee, A. L. (2016). A test of outreach and drop-in linkage versus shelter linkage for connecting homeless youth to services. Prevention Science, 17(4), 450–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0630-3.
Slesnick, N., Kang, M. J., Bonomi, A. E., & Prestopnik, J. L. (2008). Six- and twelve-month outcomes among homeless youth accessing therapy and case management services through an urban drop-in center. Health Services Research, 43(1), 211–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00755.x.
Staller, K. M., & Kirk, S. A. (1997). Unjust freedom: The ethics of client self-determination in runaway youth shelters. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14(3), 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024521720170.
Stawar, T. L., & Griffiths, S. C. (1989). The development of a corporate philosophy in a mental health organization. Journal of Mental Health Administration, 16(2), 91–96.
Taylor-Seeharfer, M. A. (2004). Positive youth development: Reducing the health risks of homeless youth. The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 29, 36–40.
The Administration for Children and Families. (2008). The runaway and homeless youth act. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/fysb/resource/rhy-act.
Thompson, S. J., Bender, K., Windsor, L., Cook, M. S., & Williams, T. (2010). Homeless youth: Characteristics, contributing factors, and service options. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 20(2), 193–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350903269831.
Thompson, S. J., McManus, H., Lantry, J., Windsor, L., & Flynn, P. M. (2006). Insights from the street: Perceptions of services and providers by homeless young adults. Evaluation and Program Planning, 29(1), 34–43.
Tyler, K. A., & Schmitz, R. M. (2013). Family histories and multiple transitions among homeless young adults: Pathways to homelessness. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(10), 1719–1726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.07.014.
United States Interagency Council on Homelessness. (2015). Opening doors: Federal strategic plan to prevent and end homelessness. Retrieved from https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/USICH_OpeningDoors_Amendment2015_FINAL.pdf.
Vivian, P., & Hormann, S. (2015). Persistent traumatization in nonprofit organizations. Organizational Development Practitioners, 47(1), 25.
Whitbeck, L. B. (2011). Mental health and emerging adulthood among homeless young people. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Williams, N. R., Lindsey, E. W., Kurtz, P. D., & Jarvis, S. (2001). From trauma to resiliency: Lessons from former runaway and homeless youth. Journal of Youth Studies, 4(2), 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260123589.
Wolf, Z. R. (2003). Exploring the audit trail for qualitative investigations. Nurse Educator, 28(4), 175–178.
Woods, E. R., Samples, C. L., Melchiono, M. W., & Harris, S. K. (2003). Boston HAPPENS program: HIV-positive, homeless, and at-risk youth can access care through youth-oriented HIV services. Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Disease, 14(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1053/spid.2003.127217.
Yohalem, N., Wilson-Ahlstrom, A., Fischer, S., & Shinn, M. (2009). Measuring youth program quality: A guide to assessment tools (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: The Forum for Youth Investment.
Youth Development Strategies Inc. (2016). Supports and opportunities scales. Retrieved from http://www.ydsi.org/ydsi/measuring/index.html.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the William T. Grant Foundation (#182738). We wish to acknowledge the support, guidance, and training received from the William T. Grant Foundation, including from Kim DuMont, PhD and Nancy Rivera-Torres. We wish to acknowledge the Center for Drug Use and HIV Research (CDUHR; P30 DA011041) for its support of the study, and in particular Aradhana Srinagesh, MPH, Amanda Applegate, Lucia Pattullo, Chris Hilliard, MPH, and Dawa Sherpa, BA for editorial assistance. We also thank Ravi Ramaswamy and Charles Smith, PhD at the David P. Weikart Center for Youth Program Quality for their guidance and training on understanding and assessing program quality, as well as Michelle Gambone, PhD at Youth Development Strategies, Inc.; and Nina Aledort, PhD at the Office of Children and Family Services. We further acknowledge the staff at the settings for runaway and homeless youth who engaged in the study and offered insights into their work, as well as the young people who participated.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gwadz, M., Freeman, R., Leonard, N.R. et al. Understanding Organizations Serving Runaway and Homeless Youth: A Multi-setting, Multi-perspective Qualitative Exploration. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 36, 201–217 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0563-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0563-3