Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Housing and Social Support for Youth Aging Out of Foster Care: State of the Research Literature and Directions for Future Inquiry

  • Published:
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Youth who age out of the foster care system often experience a difficult transition to adulthood in several important domains, including housing. Although high rates of homelessness are well documented, scant research has examined how youth navigate housing and living arrangements in the immediate years following emancipation. In addition, little is known about the relationship between social support and housing stability for this population. In this paper, we argue that in policy and practice regarding emancipated foster youth there is a central tension between the goal of “self-sufficiency” and the practical need to maintain and create supportive social connections. We suggest that programs for emancipated youth could benefit from more research and policy attention on this tension and how it may play a role in housing outcomes. In building our argument, we first review the literature on housing and emancipated foster youth in the transition to adulthood period. Next, we discuss the body of research literature exploring the role and function of social support for youth who have aged out of care. We highlight how policies appear to favor the development of self-sufficiency for aged-out youth over the development of a social support network and suggest key directions for future research, policy and practice concerning emancipated foster youth and housing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The spectrum of housing programs for emancipated foster youth include emergency services (which is usually time-limited and can include shelters and drop-in centers or one-time financial assistance to be used for immediate housing needs), transitional housing (which is usually provided for 1–2 years and often includes social services that assist the youth in attaining permanent housing of their own upon completion of the program) or permanent housing and services (such as housing subsidies, public housing, or all-year dormitories for emancipated youth in college, which are sometimes accompanied with voluntary support services such as case management). See Torrico and Bhat (2009) for more details.

References

  • Akers, R. L. (2011). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barth, R. (1990). On their own: The experiences of youth after foster care. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 7, 419–440. doi:10.1007/BF00756380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barth, R. (1996). The juvenile court and dependence cases. The Future of Children: The juvenile court, 6(3), 100–110. doi:10.2307/1602597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barth, R. P. (2002). Outcomes of adoption and what they tell us about designing adoption services. Adoption Quarterly, 6, 45–60. doi:10.1300/J145v06n01_05.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berzin, S. C., Rhodes, A. M., & Curtis, M. A. (2011). Housing experiences of former foster youth: How do they fare in comparison to other youth? Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2119–2126. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.06.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Syme, S. L. (1985). Issues in the application and study of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Social support and health (pp. 3–22). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. E., & Curtis, M. (2011). Conceptualizing housing careers for vulnerable youth: Implications for research and policy. American Journal of Orthopyschiatry, 81, 390–400. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01107.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. E., Paris, R., & Ward, R. L. (2008). The permanence of family ties: Implications for youth transitioning from foster care. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 54–62. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.78.1.54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. E., Spencer, R., & Ward, R. (2010). Supporting youth in the transition from foster care: Formal and informal connections. Child Welfare, 89, 125–143.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. E., & Ward, R. L. (2011). Services and outcomes for transition age foster care youth: Youths’ perspectives. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies: An International Interdisciplinary Journal for Research, Policy and Care, 6(2), 157–165. doi:10.1080/17450128.2011.564226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, R. (1994). Are we helping foster care youth prepare for their future? Children and Youth Services Review, 16, 213–229. doi:10.1016/0190-7409(94)90007-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtney, M. E. (2009). Social policy report: The difficult transition to adulthood for foster youth in the U.S. Society for Research in Child Development, 23, 1–17. Retrieved February 16, 2012, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED509761.

  • Courtney, M. E. (2010). Social policy and the transition to adulthood in the U.S. In S. B. Kamerman, S. Phipps, A. Ben-Arieh (Eds.), From child welfare to child well-being (117–136). New York: Springer.

  • Courtney, M. E., & Dworsky, A. (2006). Early outcomes for young adults transitioning from out-of-home care in the U.S.A. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 209–219. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00433.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtney, M. E., & Heuring, D. H. (2005). The transition to adulthood for youth aging out of the foster care system. In W. D. Osgood, M. E. Foster, C. Flanagan, & G. R. Ruth (Eds): On your own without a net: The transition to adulthood for vulnerable populations (pp. 27–68). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

  • Courtney, M., Zinn, A., Koralek, R., Bess, R., Stagner, M., Pergamit, M., & Johnson, H. Evaluation of the Independent Living-Employment Services Program, Kern County, California: Final report. OPRE Report # 201113. Washington, D.C.: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011. Retrieved February 16, 2012, from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/abuse_neglect/chafee/reports/eval_kern/eval_kern.pdf.

  • Courtney, M., Piliavin, I., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Nesmith, A. (2001). Foster youth transitions to adulthood: A longitudinal view of youth leaving care. Child Welfare, 80, 685–717. Retrieved February 17, 2012, from http://www.thenightministry.org/070_facts_figures/030_research_links/060_homeless_youth/courtneyfosteryouthtransitions.pdf.

  • Cunningham, M. J., & Diversi, M. (2012). Aging out: Youths’ perspectives on foster care and the transition to independence. Qualitative Social Work, 0, 1–16. doi:10.1177/1473325012445833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, A., Dworsky, A., Fogarty, K., & Damashek, A. (2011). An examination of post-secondary retention and graduation among foster care youth enrolled in a four-year university. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(11), 2335–2341.

  • Duffy, M. E. (1989). The primary support received by recently divorced mothers. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 11, 676–693. doi:10.1177/019394598901100603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dworsky, A. (2005). The economic self-sufficiency of Wisconsin’s former foster youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 1085–1118. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.12.032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworsky, A., Dillman, K., Dion, R. M., Coffee-Borden, B., & Rosenau, M. Housing for youth aging out of foster care: A review of the literature and program typology (April 2012). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development & Research, April 2012. Retrieved at SSRN from http://ssrn.com/abstract=2112278.

  • Dworsky, A., & Courtney, M. (2010). Assessing the impact of extending care beyond age 18 on homelessness: Emerging findings from the Midwest Study. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.chapinhall.org/research/brief/assessing-impact-extending-care-beyond-age-18-homelessness-emerging-findings-midwest.

  • Dworsky, A., & Havlicek, J. (2009). Experiences of foster youth in an employment training and job placement program (p. 2010). Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, K. M., Bender, K., Thompson, S., Xie, B., & Pollio, D. (2011). Correlates of street-survival behaviors in homeless young adults in four US cities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(3), 401–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, T. (1983). No one ever asked us: A postscript to foster care. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J., Rugg, J., & Burrows, R. (2002). Conceptualising the contemporary role of housing in the transition to adult life in England. Urban Studies, 39, 2455–2467. doi:10.1080/0042098022000027059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furstenberg, F. (2010). On a new schedule: Transitions to adulthood and family change. Future of Children, 20(1), 67–87. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/docs/20_01_04.pdf.

  • Garrett, S. B., Higa, D. H., Phares, M. M., Peterson, P. L., Wells, E. A., & Baer, J. S. (2008). Homeless youths’ perceptions of services and transitions to stable housing. Evaluation and Program Planning, 31(4), 436–444.

  • Geen, R. (2009). The Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act: Implementation issues and a look ahead at additional child welfare reforms. Child Trends, Working Paper. Retrieved February 16, 2012, from http://www.childtrends.org/files/child_trends-2009_02_10_fr_newcwpaper.pdf.

  • Geenen, S. & Powers, L. (2006). Transition planning for foster youth. Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 28 (2), 4–15. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.specialpopulations.org/Chapters%20Vol%2028-2/JVSNE_Vol28-2_Geenen.pdf.

  • Goerge, R. M., Bilaver, L., Lee, B. J., Needell, B., Brookhart, A., & Jackman, W. (2002). Employment outcomes for youth aging out of foster care. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/fostercare-agingout02.

  • Goldscheider, F., & Goldscheider, C. (1994). Leaving and returning home in twentieth century America. Population Reference Bureau Bulletin, 48, 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodkind, S. G., Schelbe, L. A., & Shook, J. J. (2011). Why youth leave care: Understandings of adulthood and transition successes and challenges among youth aging out of child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(6), 1039–1048. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.01.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halcon, L., & Lifson, A. (2004). Prevalence and predictors of sexual risk among homeless youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(1), 71–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havlicek, J. (2011). Lives in motion: A review of former foster youth in the context of their experiences in the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1090–1100. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.02.007.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • House, J. S. (1981). Work stress and social support. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Watch (2010). My so-called emancipation: From foster care to homelessness for California youth. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.hrw.org/reports/2010/05/12/my-so-called-emancipation-0.

  • Iglehart, A., & Becerra, R. (2002). Hispanic and African American youth: Life after foster care emancipation. Social Work with Multicultural Youth, 11, 79–107. doi:10.1300/J051v11n01_04.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, L., & Kruk, E. (2005). Life in government care: The connection of youth to family. Child & Youth Care Forum, 34, 405–421. doi:10.1007/s10566-005-7754-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, R. L., & Antonucci, T. C. (1980). Convoys over the life course: Attachment, roles and social support. In P. B. Baltes & O. Brim (Eds.), Life span development and behavior (pp. 253–286). New York, NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (1986). Social support, stress, and well-being. Journal of Gerontology, 41(4), 512–519. doi:10.1093/geronj/41.4.512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Vigne, N. G., Visher, C., & Castro, J. (2004). Chicago prisoners’ experience returning home. Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Retrieved March 2, 2012, from http://www.urban.org/publications/311115.html.

  • Langford, C. P., Bowsher, J., Maloney, J. P., & Lillis, P. P. (1997). Social support: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Advances in Nursing, 25, 95–100. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997025095.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemon, K., Hines, A. M., & Merdinger, J. (2005). From foster care to young adulthood: The role of independent living programs in supporting successful transitions. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 251–270. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.09.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macomber, J., Cuccaro-Alamin, Duncan, D., Kuehn, D., McDaniel, M., Vericker, T., Barth, R. P., et al. (2008). Coming of Age: Employment outcomes for youth who age out of foster care through their middle twenties. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/08/fosteremp/.

  • Mallon, G. P. (1998). After care, then where? Outcomes of an Independent Living Program. Child Welfare, 77, 61–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mares, A. S. (2010). An assessment of independent living services needs among emancipating foster youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 27(1), 79–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, D. J., & Abrams, L. S. (2013). Informal social support among returning young offenders: A meta-synthesis of the literature. International Journal Offender of Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 57, 169–190. doi:10.1177/0306624X11428203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mauzerall, H. A. (1983). Emancipation from foster care: The independent living project. Child Welfare, 62(1), 46–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, H., McMillen, J. C., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2008). Older youth leaving the foster care system: Who, what, when, where, and why? Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 735–745. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.12.003.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy-Roth, M., DeVooght, K., & Fletcher, M. (2011). Number of youth aging out of foster care drops below 28,000 in 2010. (Analysis No. 5). Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.fosteringconnections.org/tools/assets/files/Older-Youth-brief-2011-Final.pdf.

  • Mech, E. V., & Fung, C. (1999). Placement restrictiveness and educational achievement among emancipated foster youth. Research on Social Work Practice, 9(2), 213–228. doi:10.1177/104973159900900206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mosley, J. E., & Courtney, M. E. (2012). Partnership and the politics of care: Advocates’ role in passing and implementing California’s law to extend foster care. Chicago: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago. Retrieved December 29, 2012, from http://www.chapinhall.org/sites/default/files/Partnership_Politics_09_19_12.pdf.

  • National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2009). Homeless youth and sexual exploitation: Research findings and practice implications. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.endhomelessness.org/content/article/detail/2559.

  • Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., Flanagan, C., & Ruth, G. R. (Eds.). (2005). On your own without a net: The transition to adulthood for vulnerable populations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, G., Gerrard, M. D., Heineman, J., Shelton, E., & Anton, M. (2006). Overview of youth and young adult homelessness in Minnesota. Amherst A. Wilder Foundation, Wilder Research. St. Paul, MN. Retrieved September 21, 2009, from http://www.wilder.org/download.0.html?report=2087.

  • Pecora, P. J., Kessler, R. C., Williams, J., O’Brien, K., Downs, A. C., English, D., et al. (2005). Improving family foster care: Findings from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study. Seattle, WA: Casey Family Programs. Retrieved March 20, 2012, from http://www.casey.org/resources/publications/pdf/improvingfamilyfostercare_es.pdf.

  • Perez, B. F. (2010). Foster care alumni: The importance of social capital and social networks. Master’s Thesis. Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1480494).

  • Perez, B. F., & Romo, H. D. (2011). “Couch surfing” of Latino foster care alumni: Reliance on peers as social capital. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 239–248. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.05.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinkerton, J., & Dolan, P. (2007). Family support, social capital, resilience and adolescent coping. Child & Family Social Work, 12(3), 219–228. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00497.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Propp, J., Ortega, D. M., & NewHeart, F. (2003). Independence or interdependence: Rethinking the transition from “ward of the court” to adulthood. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 82(2), 259–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, S. (2004). Evaluating a transitional living program for homeless, former foster care youth. Research on Social Work Practice, 14, 240–248. doi:10.1177/1049731503257883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, T. (2003). Transition from care: Status and outcomes of youth who age out of foster care. Child Welfare, 82(6), 727–746. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14736032.

  • Reindal, S. M. (1999). Independence, dependence, interdependence: some reflections on the subject and personal autonomy. Disability & Society, 14(3), 353–367. doi:10.1080/09687599926190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, G. M., & Pryce, J. M. (2008). “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger”: Survivalist self-reliance as resilience and risk among young adults aging out of foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1198–1210. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.03.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, F. A. (1998). Social support’s contribution to reduced welfare dependency: Program outcomes of long term welfare recipients. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 25(4), 105–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelbe, L. A. (2011). Policy analysis of Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 21(5), 555–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solorio, M. R., Milburn, N., Andersen, R., Trifskin, S., & Rodriguez, M. (2006). Emotional Distress and Mental Health Service Use Among Urban Homeless Adolescents. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 33(4), 38–1393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stivers, C. (1991). Promotion of self-esteem in the prevention of suicide. In A. A. Leenaars & S. Wenckstern (Eds.), Suicide prevention in schools (pp. 51–69). New York: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilden, V. P., & Weinert, S. C. (1987). Social support and the chronically ill individual. Nursing Clinics of North America, 22(3), 613–620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toro, P. A., Dworsky, A., & Fowler, P. J. (2007). Homeless youth in the United States: Recent research findings and intervention approaches. 2007 National Symposium on Homeless Research Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the Office Policy, Development, and Research, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

  • Torrico, R., & Bhat, S. (2009). Connected by 25: Financing housing supports for youth transitioning out of foster care. Washington, D.C.: The Finance Project. Retrieved March 20, 2012, from http://www.homebaseccc.org/PDFs/TAY/Report.FinancingHousingSupportForTAY.pdf.

  • Tyler, K. A., & Melander, L. A. (2011). A qualitative study of the formation and composition of social networks among homeless youth. Journal of Adolescence, 21(4), 802–817. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00739.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Government Accountability Office.HHS actions would help states prepare youth in the foster care for independent living (Report no. GAO-07-1097T). Washington, D.C.: GAO, 2007. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from  www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-1097T.

  • Wilkinson, R. A. (2005). Engaging communities: An essential ingredient to offender reentry. Corrections Today, 67, 86–89. Retrieved February 19, 2012, from https://www.ncjrs.gov/app/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=209486.

  • Wulczyn, F., & Hislop., K. B. (2001). Children in substitute care at age 16: Selected findings from the multistate data archive. Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago.

  • Zimmerman, R. B. (1982). Foster care in retrospect. New Orleans, LA: Tulane University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social Welfare, University of California, Los Angeles, 3250 Public Affairs Building, Box 951656, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1656, USA

    Susanna R. Curry & Laura S. Abrams

Authors
  1. Susanna R. Curry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura S. Abrams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susanna R. Curry.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Curry, S.R., Abrams, L.S. Housing and Social Support for Youth Aging Out of Foster Care: State of the Research Literature and Directions for Future Inquiry. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 32, 143–153 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-014-0346-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-014-0346-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation