Abstract
Using the published literature and records, this study investigated the historical introduction, geographical distribution, and biological characteristics of 404 alien plants in 32 provinces (including municipalities) in China. The results showed that three fifths of the alien plants was introduced for intentional purposes, and the introduction of alien plants increased with time from 139 BC to the current time, especially during historical events that played an important part in the process of introduction. The geographical distribution of alien plant species tended to decrease from the south and the east to the north and the west. Annual average precipitation (Y = 7.51X + 7.05, R2 = 0.67) and temperature (Y = 0.07X + 41.54, R2 = 0.67) had a linear relationship with alien plant introduction throughout China. Furthermore, population density and economic conditions also affected and promoted plant invasions in China. The life forms were well adapted to regional precipitation and temperature, but different life forms of alien plants were not consistent with the distribution tendency based on the quantity of alien plants. There was a higher percentage of annual and biennial plants in the northern provinces (e.g. 66.7 and 15.7% in Inner Mongolia), whereas there were more perennial and woody plant species in the southern provinces (e.g. 37.0 and 21.2% in Hainan). Family characteristics could not accurately predict plant invasions; however, predictions based on genera were acceptable. In addition, the origin of alien plants can also predict the distribution and potential risk of invasions. Thus, our study investigated the factors affecting plant invasions in order to provide information on the prevention and control of alien plants.
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Acknowledgements
This study was partly supported by the Special Fund for Agro-scientific Research in Public Interest (Grant No. 201203062) and the National Commonwealth Project (Grant No. 201303060). The authors also thank two anonymous contributors for their suggestions on improving the manuscript.
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Communicated by Daniel Sanchez Mata.
This article belongs to the Topical Collection: Invasive species.
Appendices
Appendix 1
Latin name | Family and life form | Origins | Introduction time | Distribution number of provinces in China | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Acacia dealbata | Fabaceae Tr | Aus | 1950~ | 3 |
2 | A. farnesiana | Fabaceae Sh | Nam, Sam | 1645 | 9 |
3 | A. mearnsii | Fabaceae Tr | Aus | 1961 | 1 |
4 | Acanthospermum hispidum | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1936 | 6 |
5 | Abutilon theophrasti | Malvaceae An | India | 657 | 30 |
6 | Aegilops squarrosa | Poaceae An | Eurasia | 1950~ | 6 |
7 | Aeschynomene americana | Fabaceae Pe | Tropical America | 1962 | 1 |
8 | Agave americana | Agavaceae Pe | Nam | 1959 | 4 |
9 | Ageratina adenophora | Asteraceae Pe | Cam | 1935 | 10 |
10 | Ageratum conyzoides | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1800~ | 18 |
11 | A. houstonianum | Asteraceae An | Cam | 1860 | 16 |
12 | Agrostemma githago | Caryophyllaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1800~ | 6 |
13 | Albizia lebbeck | Fabaceae Tr | Tropical Africa | Unknown | 5 |
14 | Alliaria petiolata | Brassicaceae Bi | Eurasia | Unknown | 2 |
15 | Aloe vera | Liliaceae Pe | Afr | 1688 | 1 |
16 | Althaea officinalis | Malvaceae Pe | Central Asia | 1931 | 2 |
17 | Alternanthera paronychioides | Amaranthaceae Pe | Brazil | 1920 | 3 |
18 | A. philoxeroides | Amaranthaceae Pe | Sam | 1892 | 20 |
19 | A. pungens | Amaranthaceae Pe | Sam | After 1950 | 5 |
20 | Alyssum alyssoides | Brassicaceae An | Eurasia, Nafr | Unknown | 1 |
21 | Amaranthus albus | Amaranthaceae An | Nam | 1929 | 8 |
22 | A. blitoides | Amaranthaceae An | Nam | 1875 | 11 |
23 | A. caudatus | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | Mordern times | 29 |
24 | A. cruentus | Amaranthaceae An | Cam | Late 19th century | 18 |
25 | A. hybridus | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | Unknown | 16 |
26 | A. palmeri | Amaranthaceae An | Nam | 1985 | 4 |
27 | A. polygonoides | Amaranthaceae An | Cam | 1979 | 4 |
28 | A. retroflexus | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | 1850~ | 26 |
29 | A. roxburghianus | Amaranthaceae An | India | Unknown | 7 |
30 | A. spinosus | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | 1857 | 21 |
31 | A. standleyanus | Amaranthaceae An | Argentina | 2003 | 1 |
32 | A. tricolor | Amaranthaceae An | India | 900~ | 5 |
33 | A. viridis | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | 1864 | 22 |
34 | A. lividus | Amaranthaceae An | Tropical America | 1848 | 25 |
35 | Ambrosia artemisiifolia | Asteraceae An | Nam | 1930~ | 20 |
36 | A. trifida | Asteraceae An | Nam | 1930~ | 15 |
37 | Amorpha fruticosa | Fabaceae Sh | Nam | Unknown | 10 |
38 | Andrographis paniculata | Acanthaceae An | Tropical Asia | 1950 | 5 |
39 | Anredera cordifolia | Basellaceae Vi | Sam | 1970~ | 15 |
40 | Anthemis arvensis | Asteraceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1900~ | 2 |
41 | Antigonon leptopus | Polygonaceae Vi | Cam | Unknown | 5 |
42 | Apium leptophyllum | Apiaceae An | Sam | 1900~ | 12 |
43 | Argemone mexicana | Papaveraceae An | Cam, Tropical America | 1972 | 5 |
44 | Asclepias curassavica | Asclepiadaceae Pe | Tropics | 1800 | 16 |
45 | Asparagus densiflorus | Liliaceae Pe | Afr | Unknown | – |
46 | A. setaceus | Liliaceae Pe | Afr | Unknown | 1 |
47 | Aster subulatus | Asteraceae An | Nam | 1947 | 24 |
48 | Asystasia gangetica | Acanthaceae Pe | Africa, Asia | Unknown | 1 |
49 | Atriplex nummularia | Chenopodiaceae Pe | Aus | Unknown | 1 |
50 | Axonopus compressus | Poaceae Pe | Nam, Sam | 1940 | 6 |
51 | Avena fatua | Poaceae An | Afr, Eurasia | 1850~ | 32 |
52 | A. sterilis | Poaceae An | Afr, Eurasia | 2007 | 2 |
53 | Avicennia germinans | Acanthaceae Tr | Tropical/subtropical Americas | Unknown | 1 |
54 | Azolla filiculoides | Azollaceae Aq | Am | 1970~ | 3 |
55 | Basella alba | Basellaceae An | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 13 |
56 | Begonia cucullata | Begoniaceae Pe | Brazil | 1901 | 4 |
57 | Bidens frondosa | Asteraceae An | Nam | 1900~ | 14 |
58 | Bidens alba | Asteraceae An | Am | 1933 | 3 |
59 | Bidens bipinnata | Asteraceae An | Nam | Unknown | 14 |
60 | B. pilosa | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1857 | 26 |
61 | Borreria latifolia | Rubiaceae Pe | Sam | 1937 | 8 |
62 | Brachiaria eruciformis | Poaceae An | Afr, Eurasia | Mordern times | 3 |
63 | B. mutica | Poaceae Pe | West Africa | 1964 | 4 |
64 | Brassica kaber | Brassicaceae Bi | Eur | Ancient times | 21 |
65 | Bromus catharticus var. catharticus | Poaceae An | Argentina | 1940~ | 9 |
66 | Bryophyllum pinnatum | Crassulaceae Pe | Afr | 1887 | 7 |
67 | Buchloe dactyloides | Poaceae Pe | Nam | 1950~ | 9 |
68 | Cabomba caroliniana | Cabombaceae Aq | Sam | 1993 | 4 |
69 | Caesalpinia pulcherrima | Fabaceae Tr | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 1 |
70 | Cajanus cajan | Fabaceae Sh | India | 1961 | 5 |
71 | Callisia repens | Commelinaceae Pe | Nam, Sam | Unknown | 1 |
72 | Calopogonium mucunoides | Fabaceae Vi | Tropical Sam | Unknown | 5 |
73 | Cameraria latifolia | Apocynaceae Tr | Nam, Sam | Unknown | 1 |
74 | Canna indica | Cannaceae Pe | India | 1850~ | 4 |
75 | Cannabis sativa | Cannabaceae An | Asia | Ancient times | 31 |
76 | Cardamine flexuosa | Brassicaceae Bi | Eur | Unknown | 14 |
77 | Cassia didymobotrya | Fabaceae Sh | Afr, Tropical Asia | 1965 | 1 |
78 | C. floribunda-laevigata | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1935 | 4 |
79 | C. hirsuta | Fabaceae Pe | Tropical America | 1984 | 1 |
80 | C. mimosoides | Fabaceae An | Tropical America | 1406 | 17 |
81 | C. occidentalis | Fabaceae An | Tropics | 1500~ | 20 |
82 | C. sophera | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 2 |
83 | C. tora | Fabaceae Sh | Asia | 1950~ | 17 |
84 | Catharanthus roseus | Apocynaceae Pe | Africa, Mediterranean, Asia, Tropical America | 1917 | 7 |
85 | Celosia argentea | Amaranthaceae An | Unknown | Unknown | 18 |
86 | C. cristata | Amaranthaceae An | Africa, Tropical America, Asia | Before 618 | 32 |
87 | Cenchrus caliculatus | Poaceae An | Subtropical Asia | 1985 | 3 |
88 | C. echinatus | Poaceae An | Tropics | 1934 | 9 |
89 | C. longispinus | Poaceae An | Am | 1969 | 4 |
90 | C. pauciflorus | Poaceae An | Nam, Sam | Unknown | 3 |
91 | Centaurea cyanus | Asteraceae An | Eurasia | Unknown | 2 |
92 | Centrosema pubescens | Fabaceae Vi | Tropical America | 1949~ | 4 |
93 | Cerastium glomeratum | Caryophyllaceae An | Eur | Unknown | 12 |
94 | Cestrum nocturnum | Solanaceae Sh | Tropical America, Asia | 1917 | 4 |
95 | Chenopodium ambrosioides | Chenopodiaceae Pe | Nam, Sam | 1864 | 24 |
96 | C. giganteum | Chenopodiaceae An | India | Unknown | 10 |
97 | C. hybridum subsp. hybridum | Chenopodiaceae An | Eurasia | 1864 | 20 |
98 | C. pumilio | Chenopodiaceae An | Aus | 1993 | 2 |
99 | Chloris gayana | Poaceae Pe | Afr | 1913 | 2 |
100 | Chromolaena odorata | Asteraceae Pe | Cam | 1934 | 9 |
101 | Chrysanthemum carinatum | Asteraceae An | Nafr | 1914 | 8 |
102 | C. coronarium | Asteraceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1057 | 17 |
103 | Cichorium intybus | Asteraceae Pe | Eur | 1980~ | 12 |
104 | Cleome rutidosperma | Cleomaceae An | Afr | 1958 | 7 |
105 | Clitoria ternatea | Fabaceae Vi | Tropical Asia, Tropical America, West Africa | 1909 | 7 |
106 | Coccinia grandis | Cucurbitaceae An | Asia | Unknown | 6 |
107 | Conium maculatum | Apiaceae An | Mediterranean | 1979 | 1 |
108 | Conyza bonariensis | Asteraceae Bi | Sam | 1857 | 22 |
109 | C. canadensis | Asteraceae Bi | Nam, Sam | 1860 | 28 |
110 | C. sumatrensis | Asteraceae Bi | Sam | 1850~ | 18 |
111 | Corchorus olitorius | Malvaceae An | Pantropic | Unknown | 5 |
112 | Coreopsis grandiflora | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | 1900~ | 1 |
113 | C. lanceolata | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | 1900~ | 7 |
114 | C. tinctoria | Asteraceae An | Nam | 1900~ | 4 |
115 | Coronopus didymus | Brassicaceae Bi | Sam | 1930~ | 15 |
116 | Coronilla varia | Fabaceae Pe | Mediterranean | Unknown | 1 |
117 | Cosmos bipinnatus | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1911 | 18 |
118 | C. sulphureus | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1938 | 10 |
119 | Crassocephalum crepidioides | Asteraceae An | Afr | 1930~ | 20 |
120 | Crotalaria incana | Fabaceae Pe | Tropical America | Unknown | 6 |
121 | C. juncea | Fabaceae Pe | India | 1940~ | 7 |
122 | C. lanceolata | Fabaceae Pe | Afr | 1935 | 6 |
123 | C. micans | Fabaceae Pe | Am | 1931 | 6 |
124 | C. ochroleuca | Fabaceae Pe | Afr | 1955 | 4 |
125 | C. trichotoma | Fabaceae Pe | West Africa | 1934 | 6 |
126 | Cucumis bisexualis | Cucurbitaceae An | Afr | 1900~ | 3 |
127 | Cuphea carthagenensis | Lythraceae An | Mexico | 1965 | 5 |
128 | C. hyssopifolia | Lythraceae Sh | Mexico | 1990 | 4 |
129 | Cuscuta epilinum | Convolvulaceae An | Eur | Unknown | 1 |
130 | Cyclachaena xanthiifolia | Asteraceae An | Nam | Unknown | 3 |
131 | Cyperus flabelliformis | Cyperaceae Pe | Afr | 1956 | 6 |
132 | C. rotundus | Cyperaceae Pe | Tropics | After 25 | 23 |
133 | Dahlia pinnata | Asteraceae Pe | Mexico | 1950~ | 1 |
134 | Datura inoxia | Solanaceae An | Cam | 1905 | 15 |
135 | D. metel | Solanaceae An | Nam | Ancient times | 13 |
136 | D. stramonium | Solanaceae An | Cam | After 1405 | 32 |
137 | Daucus carota | Apiaceae Bi | Afr, Eurasia | 1406 | 23 |
138 | Derris elliptica | Fabaceae Sh & Vi | Unknown | 1939 | 3 |
139 | Desmanthus virgatus | Fabaceae Pe | Tropical America | Unknown | 1 |
140 | Desmodium tortuosum | Fabaceae Pe | South America,West Asia | 1995 | 4 |
141 | Deutzia crenata | Hydrangeaceae Sh | Japan | 1937 | 8 |
142 | Digitalis purpurea | Scrophulariaceae Pe | Nafr, Eur | 1910 | 1 |
143 | Digitaria ciliaris | Poaceae An | Pantropical | Unknown | 27 |
144 | Dinebra retroflexa | Poaceae An | Asia, Africa | 1979 | 3 |
145 | Diplotaxis muralis | Brassicaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Unknown | 1 |
146 | Duranta erecta | Verbenaceae Sh | Nam, Sam | Unknown | 9 |
147 | Ehrharta erecta | Poaceae An | Afr | 1980~ | 1 |
148 | Eichhornia crassipes | Pontederiaceae Aq | Sam | 1901 | 23 |
149 | Eleusine indica | Poaceae An | Paleotropics | 1760 | 30 |
150 | Eleutherine plicata | Iridaceae Pe | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 1 |
151 | Elsholtzia communis | Lamiaceae Pe | Tropical Asia | 1973 | 1 |
152 | Erechtites hieraciifolius | Asteraceae An | Mexico | Unknown | 11 |
153 | E. valerianaefolia | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1964 | 2 |
154 | Erigeron annuus | Asteraceae Bi | Nam | 1886 | 28 |
155 | E. philadelphicus | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | Late 19th century | 4 |
156 | Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa | Brassicaceae | Eur | Unknown | 14 |
157 | Eryngium foetidum | Apiaceae Pe | Sam | Late 19th century | 8 |
158 | Erythrina arborescens | Fabaceae Tr | Asia, Australia | Unknown | 1 |
159 | Eupatorium cannabinum | Asteraceae Pe | Eur | Unknown | 3 |
160 | E. catarium | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1980~ | 6 |
161 | Euphorbia cyathophora | Euphorbiaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1937 | 3 |
162 | E. dentata | Euphorbiaceae An | Cam, Nam | 1976 | 1 |
163 | E. heterophylla | Euphorbiaceae Pe | Nam | 1941 | 14 |
164 | E. hirta | Euphorbiaceae An | Tropics | 1820 | 16 |
165 | E. hypericifolia | Euphorbiaceae An | Tropical/Subtropical | 1924 | 16 |
166 | E. maculata | Euphorbiaceae An | Nam | 1940~ | 25 |
167 | E. marginata | Euphorbiaceae An | Nam | 1988 | 4 |
168 | E. nutans | Euphorbiaceae An | Am | Unknown | 6 |
169 | E. peplus | Euphorbiaceae An | Eur | 1925 | 6 |
170 | E. prostrata | Euphorbiaceae An | Tropical America | 1921 | 13 |
171 | E. pulcherrima | Euphorbiaceae Sh | Cam | 1920~ | 5 |
172 | E. tirucalli | Euphorbiaceae Sh | Angola | 1970~ | 3 |
173 | Evolvulus nummularius | Convolvulaceae Pe | Unknown | 2001 | 1 |
174 | Flaveria bidentis | Asteraceae An | Sam | 2001 | 3 |
175 | Galinsoga ciliata | Asteraceae An | Sam | Unknown | 4 |
176 | G. parviflora | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1915 | 25 |
177 | G. quadriradiata | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | Unknown | 20 |
178 | Gaura parviflora | Onagraceae An | Nam | 1950~ | 10 |
179 | Geranium carolinianum | Geraniaceae An | Cam, Nam | 1940~ | 16 |
180 | Glebionis segetum | Asteraceae An | Mediterranean | Unknown | 4 |
181 | Gomphrena celosioides | Amaranthaceae An | Sam | 1960~ | 6 |
182 | Gymnocoronis spilanthoides | Asteraceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 6 |
183 | Helenium autumnale | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | Modern times | 9 |
184 | Helianthus tuberosus | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | 1600~ | 26 |
185 | Heliotropium europaeum | Boraginaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Modern times | 6 |
186 | Herissantia crispa | Malvaceae Pe | Tropical America | 1900~ | 4 |
187 | Hesperis matronalis | Brassicaceae An | Eurasia | Unknown | 1 |
188 | Hibiscus trionum | Malvaceae An | Afr, Eurasia | 1406 | 29 |
189 | Hordeum jubatum | Poaceae Bi | Am, Eur, Asia | Unknown | 6 |
190 | Hydrocotyle vulgaris | Apiaceae Pe | Tropical America | Unknown | 6 |
191 | Hylocereus undatus | Cactaceae Sh | Cam, Sam | 1645 | 5 |
192 | Hyptis brevipes | Lamiaceae An | Mexico | Unknown | 3 |
193 | H. rhomboidea | Lamiaceae An | Cam | 1922 | 4 |
194 | H. suaveolens | Lamiaceae An | Sam | Late 19th century | 5 |
195 | Impatiens balsamina | Balsaminaceae | Tropical Asia | Before 618 | 7 |
196 | Indigofera suffruticosa | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1932 | 10 |
197 | Ipomoea alba | Convolvulaceae An | Nam, Sam | 1929 | 8 |
198 | I. cairica | Convolvulaceae Vi | Unknown | 1912 | 6 |
199 | I. hederacea | Convolvulaceae An | Nam, Sam | 1927 | 1 |
200 | I. indica | Convolvulaceae An | Pantropic | Unknown | 3 |
201 | I. lacunosa | Convolvulaceae An | Nam | Unknown | 3 |
202 | I. nil | Convolvulaceae An | Pantropic | Mordern times | 26 |
203 | I. purpurea | Convolvulaceae An | Sam | 1890 | 30 |
204 | I. quamoclit | Convolvulaceae An | Tropical America | 1930 | 8 |
205 | I. triloba | Convolvulaceae An | Tropical America | 1939 | 12 |
206 | Jacquemontia tamnifolia | Convolvulaceae An | Nam, Sam | Late 20th century | 3 |
207 | Jatropha curcas | Urticaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1910 | 8 |
208 | Justicia adhatoda | Acanthaceae Sh | Tropical Asia | 1932 | 6 |
209 | J. gendarussa | Acanthaceae Pe | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 1 |
210 | Lantana camara | Verbenaceae Sh | Sam | 1645 | 12 |
211 | L. montevidensis | Verbenaceae Sh | Unknown | 1982 | 7 |
212 | Lepidium campestre | Brassicaceae An | Eurasia | Modern times | 7 |
213 | L. densiflorum | Brassicaceae An | Nam | 1931 | 14 |
214 | L. sativum | Brassicaceae An | Nafr, Asia | Unknown | 6 |
215 | L. virginicum | Brassicaceae An | Cam, Nam | 1933 | 26 |
216 | Leucaena leucocephala | Fabaceae Tr | Sam | 1645 | 9 |
217 | Leucanthemum vulgare | Asteraceae Pe | Eurasia | Modern times | 6 |
218 | Lilium hansonii | Liliaceae Pe | Asia–Korea | Unknown | 1 |
219 | Lobularia maritima | Brassicaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | Unknown | 9 |
220 | Lolium multiflorum | Poaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Unknown | 22 |
221 | L. perenne | Poaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1700~ | 22 |
222 | L. persicum | Poaceae An | Eurasia | 1958 | 7 |
223 | L. temulentum | Poaceae An | Eur | 1954 | 28 |
224 | L. temulentum var. longiaristatum | Poaceae An | Eur | 1940~ | 6 |
225 | L. temulentum var. arvense | Poaceae An | Eur | Mordern times | 11 |
226 | Ludwigia hyssopifolia | Onagraceae An | Tropical America | 1959 | 7 |
227 | L. octovalvis | Onagraceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 5 |
228 | Macfadyena unguis-cati | Bignoniaceae Vi | Cam, Sam | 1840 | 1 |
229 | Macroptilium atropurpureum | Fabaceae Pe | Tropical America | 2001 | 4 |
230 | M. lathyroides | Fabaceae Bi | Tropical America | 1974 | 4 |
231 | Malvastrum coromandelianum | Malvaceae Pe | Pantropic | 1861 | 8 |
232 | Martynia annua | Pedaliaceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1972 | 1 |
233 | Medicago hispida | Fabaceae Bi | Nafr, Eurasia | Ancient times | 23 |
234 | M. sativa | Fabaceae Pe | Asia | B.C. 139 | 25 |
235 | Melilotus albus | Fabaceae Bi | West Asia | 1922 | 25 |
236 | M. indicus | Fabaceae Bi | Asia, Europe | 1933 | 11 |
237 | M. officinalis | Fabaceae Bi | Eur | 1930 | 26 |
238 | Merremia boisiana | Convolvulaceae Pe | Tropical Asia | 1882 | 2 |
239 | Mikania micrantha | Asteraceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1919 | 6 |
240 | Mimosa invisa | Fabaceae Pe | Brazil | Unknown | 4 |
241 | M. diplotricha | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1927 | 5 |
242 | M. diplotricha var. inermis | Fabaceae Sh | Brazil | Unknown | 3 |
243 | M. pigra | Fabaceae Sh | Am | 1990~ | 3 |
244 | M. pudica | Fabaceae Pe | Sam | 1777 | 6 |
245 | M. sepiaria | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | Unknown | 1 |
246 | Mimosa sp. | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1950~ | 5 |
247 | Mirabilis jalapa | Nyctaginaceae An | Sam | 1848 | 24 |
248 | Mitracarpus hirtus | Rubiaceae An | Asia, Tropical Sam, Africa | 1980~ | 7 |
249 | Momordica charantia | Cucurbitaceae | India | After 1405 | 4 |
250 | Nasturtium officinale | Brassicaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1930 | 22 |
251 | Nerium oleander | Apocynaceae Tr | Afr, Eurasia | 1400~ | 3 |
252 | Nicandra physalodes | Solanaceae An | Peru | Unknown | 17 |
253 | Oenothera biennis | Onagraceae Bi | Nam | 1918 | 15 |
254 | O. glazioviana | Onagraceae Pe | Asia | 1860 | 2 |
255 | O. laciniata | Onagraceae Pe | Nam | 1985 | 6 |
256 | O. rosea | Onagraceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1600~ | 6 |
257 | O. stricta | Onagraceae Bi | Sam | 1600~ | 18 |
258 | O. tetraptera | Onagraceae Pe | Nam | Unknown | 1 |
259 | Opuntia ficus-indica | Cactaceae Sh | Cam | 1645 | 6 |
260 | O. monacantha | Cactaceae Sh | Sam | 1625 | 7 |
261 | O. stricta var. dillenii | Cactaceae Sh | Nam, Sam | 1645 | 5 |
262 | Oxalis corymbosa | Oxalidaceae Pe | Sam | 1850~ | 26 |
263 | Oxybaphus nyctagineus | Nyctaginaceae An | Tropical America | Mordern times | 1 |
264 | Panicum maximum | Poaceae Pe | Afr | 1908 | 6 |
265 | P. repens | Poaceae Pe | Brazil | 1857 | 11 |
266 | Parapholis incurva | Poaceae An | Eur | Unknown | 2 |
267 | Parthenium hysterophorus | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1926 | 8 |
268 | Parthenocissus quinquefolia | Vitaceae Vi | Cam, Nam | 1980~ | 9 |
269 | Paspalum conjugatum | Poaceae Pe | Sam | 1912 | 11 |
270 | P. dilatatum | Poaceae Pe | Sam | 1962 | 10 |
271 | P. distichum | Poaceae Pe | Tropical/Subtropical | Unknown | 2 |
272 | P. fimbriatum | Poaceae An | Cam, Sam | 1971 | 1 |
273 | P. urvillei | Poaceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 6 |
274 | Passiflora caerulea | Passifloraceae Pe | Brazil | After 1960 | 6 |
275 | P. foetida | Passifloraceae Pe | Nam, Sam | 1861 | 8 |
276 | Pennisetum setosum | Poaceae Pe | Tropics | 1930~ | 4 |
277 | Peperomia pellucida | Piperaceae An | Sam | 1900~ | 13 |
278 | Pereskia aculeata | Cactaceae Sh | Tropical America | 1901 | 1 |
279 | Phalaris minor | Poaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Modern times | 1 |
280 | P. paradoxa | Poaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Modern times | 1 |
281 | Phleum pratense | Poaceae Pe | Europe, West Asia | Modern times | 14 |
282 | Physalis peruviana | Solanaceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 4 |
283 | P. philadelphica | Solanaceae An | Mexico | 1939 | 12 |
284 | Phyllanthus amarus | Euphorbiaceae An | Am | Unknown | 6 |
285 | P. niruri | Euphorbiaceae An | Tropical America | 1928 | 4 |
286 | Rhynchospora submarginata | Cyperaceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 1 |
287 | Phytolacca americana | Phytolaccaceae Pe | Nam | 1935 | 24 |
288 | Pilea microphylla | Urticaceae An | Cam, Sam | 1928 | 14 |
289 | Pistia stratiotes | Araceae Aq | Afr, Sam | 1593 | 17 |
290 | Pittosporum tobira | Pittosporaceae Tr | Asia | Unknown | 5 |
291 | Plantago aristata | Plantaginaceae An | Nam | 1929 | 9 |
292 | P. lanceolata | Plantaginaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | Ancient times | 13 |
293 | P. virginica | Plantaginaceae An | Nam | 1951 | 10 |
294 | Pluchea sagittalis | Asteraceae An | Sam | Before 2008 | 2 |
295 | Poa compressa | Poaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1914 | 7 |
296 | Polymnia uvedalia | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | Unknown | 1 |
297 | Portulaca polisa | Portulacaceae Pe | Tropical America | Unknown | 1 |
298 | Pseudelephantopus spicatus | Asteraceae Pe | Cam, Sam | Modern times | 2 |
299 | P. tomentosus | Asteraceae An | Nam | Unknown | 2 |
300 | Psidium guajava | Myrtaceae Tr | Tropical America | Late 17th century | 7 |
301 | Pyrethrum parthenifolium | Asteraceae Pe | Eurasia | Modern times | 1 |
302 | Ranunculus arvensis | Ranunculaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Modern times | 4 |
303 | R. muricatus | Ranunculaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1980 | 5 |
304 | R. sardous | Ranunculaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Unknown | 1 |
305 | R. trachycarpus | Ranunculaceae An | Unknown | Unknown | 1 |
306 | Raphanus raphanistrum | Brassicaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1987 | 4 |
307 | Rauvolfia cubana | Apocynaceae Sh | Cam | Unknown | 1 |
308 | Reseda lutea | Resedaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Modern times | 1 |
309 | Rhus typhina | Anacardiaceae Tr | Nam | 1959 | 11 |
310 | Rhynchelytrum repens | Poaceae Pe | Afr, Asia | 1950~ | 5 |
311 | R. nigrum | Grossulariaceae Sh | Eurasia | 1930~ | 5 |
312 | Ricinus communis | Euphorbiaceae An | Afr | 65 | 32 |
313 | Richardia scabra | Rubiaceae An | Tropical America | 1932 | 5 |
314 | Robinia pseudoacacia | Fabaceae Tr | Nam | 1877 | 26 |
315 | Rotala mexicana | Lythraceae An | Brazil, Argentina | Unknown | 3 |
316 | Salix fragilis | Salicaceae Tr | Eurasia | Unknown | 3 |
317 | Salvia coccinea | Lamiaceae An | Nam, Sam | 1939 | 1 |
318 | Sanvitalia procumbens | Asteraceae An | Mexico | 1988 | 1 |
319 | Saponaria officinalis | Caryophyllaceae Pe | Eurasia | Unknown | 3 |
320 | Scoparia dulcis | Scrophulariaceae An | Sam | 1800~ | 9 |
321 | Senna alata | Fabaceae Sh | Tropical America | Unknown | 4 |
322 | Senecio dubtabilis | Asteraceae An | Eur | Unknown | 6 |
323 | S. vulgaris | Asteraceae An | Cosmopolitan | Late 19th century | 16 |
324 | Senna surattensis | Fabaceae Sh | India | 1909 | 1 |
325 | Sesbania exaltata | Fabaceae Pe | Nam | 1910 | 14 |
326 | S. grandiflora | Fabaceae An | Asia | 1931 | 2 |
327 | S. sesban | Fabaceae Pe | Asia,Africa | 1918 | 2 |
328 | Setaria palmifolia | Poaceae Pe | Eur | 1917 | 9 |
329 | S. parviflora | Poaceae Pe | Nam, Sam | 1924 | 9 |
330 | Sicyos angulatus | Cucurbitaceae An | Nam | 2003 | 3 |
331 | Sida rhombifolia | Malvaceae Pe | Pantropic | Unknown | 8 |
332 | S. spinosa | Malvaceae Pe | Pantropic | Unknown | 3 |
333 | Silene lantifolia | Caryophyllaceae Bi | West Asia, Europe | Unknown | 1 |
334 | Silybum marianum | Asteraceae An | Nafr, Eur | 1980 | 8 |
335 | Sinapis alba | Brassicaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Unknown | 9 |
336 | S. arvensis | Brassicaceae Bi | Eur | Ancient times | 11 |
337 | Sisymbrium altissimum | Brassicaceae An | Eurasia | Unknown | 3 |
338 | S. orientale | Brassicaceae An | Eurasia | Unknown | 3 |
339 | Solanum aculeatissimum | Solanaceae An | Sam | Late 19th century | 12 |
340 | S. americanum | Solanaceae An | Am | Unknown | 2 |
341 | S. capsicoides | Solanaceae Pe | Sam | 1895 | 9 |
342 | S. chrysotrichum | Solanaceae Sh | Cam, Sam | Unknown | 2 |
343 | S. erianthum | Solanaceae Sh | Nam, Sam | 1857 | 9 |
344 | S. pseudocapsicum | Solanaceae Sh | Sam | 1910 | 6 |
345 | S. rostratum | Solanaceae An | Nam | 1982 | 6 |
346 | S. sarrachoides | Solanaceae An | Sam | Unknown | 5 |
347 | S. seaforthianum | Solanaceae Vi | Nam, Sam | 1910 | 2 |
348 | S. sisymbriifolium | Solanaceae An | Sam | 1978 | 2 |
349 | S. torvum | Solanaceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1927 | 9 |
350 | Solidago canadensis | Asteraceae Pe | Nam | 1935 | 17 |
351 | Soliva anthemifolia | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1912 | 11 |
352 | Sonchus arvensis | Asteraceae Pe | Eurasia | Ancient times | 15 |
353 | S. asper | Asteraceae Pe | Eur | Ancient times | 32 |
354 | S. oleraceus | Asteraceae Bi | Eur | 1848 | 32 |
355 | Sorghum almum | Poaceae Pe | Sam | 2000~ | 2 |
356 | S. halepense | Poaceae Pe | Nafr, Asia | 1900~ | 19 |
357 | Spartina alterniflora | Poaceae Pe | Nam, Sam | 1979 | 9 |
358 | S. anglica | Poaceae Pe | Eur | 1963 | 11 |
359 | Spergula arvensis | Caryophyllaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | After 1972 | 7 |
360 | Stachytarpheta cayennensis | Verbenaceae Pe | Cam | Unknown | 1 |
361 | S. jamaicensis | Verbenaceae Pe | Cam, Sam | Late 19th century | 6 |
362 | S. urticaefolia | Verbenaceae Pe | Tropical Asia | Unknown | 4 |
363 | Stellaria pallida | Caryophyllaceae An | Eur | Mordern times | 6 |
364 | Stylosanthes guianensis | Fabaceae Pe | Cam, Tropical America | 1962 | 6 |
365 | Symphytum officinale | Boraginaceae Pe | Eurasia | 1963 | 8 |
366 | Synedrella nodiflora | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1912 | 6 |
367 | Tagetes erecta | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1980~ | 5 |
368 | T. patula | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1911 | 1 |
369 | Talinum paniculatum | Portulacaceae An | Nam, Sam | 1476 | 22 |
370 | Tamarindus indica | Fabaceae Tr | Tropical Africa | After 1405 | 7 |
371 | Taraxacum officinale | Asteraceae Pe | Eur | Unknown | 7 |
372 | Tephrosia candida | Fabaceae Pe | India | 1928 | 6 |
373 | Thatlia dealbata | Marantaceae Aq | Am | After 1980 | 1 |
374 | Thlaspi arvense | Brassicaceae Bi | Eur | Unknown | 7 |
375 | Tithonia diversifolia | Asteraceae Pe | Cam | 1976 | 7 |
376 | Tradescantia pallida | Commelinaceae Pe | Am | Unknown | 1 |
377 | Tradescantia spathacea | Commelinaceae Pe | Sam | 1949 | 3 |
378 | T. zebrina | Commelinaceae Pe | Cam | 1909 | 4 |
379 | Tridax procumbens | Asteraceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1933 | 7 |
380 | Trifolium hybridum | Fabaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1930 | 2 |
381 | T. incarnatum | Fabaceae An | Eur | 1950~ | 18 |
382 | T. pratense | Fabaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1919 | 6 |
383 | T. repens | Fabaceae Pe | Nafr, Eurasia | 1947 | 29 |
384 | Triodanis perfoliata | Campanulaceae An | Nam | 1974 | 3 |
385 | T. perfoliata var. biflora | Campanulaceae An | Am | 1981 | 4 |
386 | Ulex europaeus | Fabaceae Sh | Eur | 1862 | 1 |
387 | Vaccaria segetalis | Caryophyllaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Ancient times | 23 |
388 | Veronica arvensis | Scrophulariaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | Mordern times | 8 |
389 | V. hederifolia | Scrophulariaceae An | Nafr, Eurasia | 1980~ | 3 |
390 | V. peregrina | Scrophulariaceae An | Nam, Sam | 1870 | 11 |
391 | V. persica | Scrophulariaceae Bi | West Asia | 1920 | 23 |
392 | V. polita | Scrophulariaceae Bi | Nafr, Eurasia | 1406 | 23 |
393 | Verbena brasiliensis | Verbenaceae Pe | Sam | After 2000 | 4 |
394 | Vetiveria zizanioides | Poaceae Pe | Asia, Mediterranean | 1920~ | 7 |
395 | Waltheria indica var. americana | Sterculiaceae Sh | Nam, Sam | 1861 | 6 |
396 | Wedelia trilobata | Asteraceae Pe | Cam, Sam | 1976 | 8 |
397 | Xanthium italicum | Asteraceae An | Eur | 1991 | 4 |
398 | X. spinosum | Asteraceae An | Sam | 1974 | 9 |
399 | X. strumarium | Asteraceae An | Cam, Sam | 1998 | 1 |
400 | Zephyranthes candida | Amaryllidaceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 3 |
401 | Z. carinata | Amaryllidaceae Pe | Cam | Unknown | 1 |
402 | Z. grandiflora | Amaryllidaceae Pe | Sam | Unknown | 7 |
403 | Zinnia elegans | Asteraceae An | Mexico | Unknown | 1 |
404 | Z. peruviana | Asteraceae An | Nam, Sam | 1900~ | 13 |
Appendix 2
Life forms of alien plants in provinces of China
Regions | Provinces | Life forms (%) | Total alien plants | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annual | Biennial | Perennial | Vine | Shrub | Tree | Othersa | |||
Northern China | Heilongjiang | 68.3 | 13.3 | 13.3 | 0.0 | 3.3 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 60 |
Jilin | 67.3 | 14.5 | 12.7 | 0.0 | 3.6 | 1.8 | 0.0 | 55 | |
Liaoning | 66.7 | 10.3 | 17.2 | 0.0 | 2.3 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 87 | |
Inner Mongolia | 66.7 | 15.7 | 9.8 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 5.9 | 0.0 | 51 | |
Hebei | 64.6 | 14.6 | 17.7 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 96 | |
Henan | 62.7 | 15.7 | 18.1 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 83 | |
Shandong | 57.8 | 15.7 | 20.6 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 102 | |
Shanxi | 54.7 | 17.2 | 23.4 | 0.0 | 1.6 | 3.1 | 0.0 | 64 | |
Shaanxi | 60.4 | 15.4 | 22.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 91 | |
Ningxia | 55.0 | 17.5 | 22.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 40 | |
Gansu | 55.3 | 20.0 | 22.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 0.0 | 85 | |
Xinjiang | 60.0 | 13.8 | 22.5 | 0.0 | 1.3 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 80 | |
Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau | Tibet | 58.5 | 19.5 | 17.1 | 0.0 | 4.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 41 |
Qinghai | 56.8 | 20.5 | 18.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4.5 | 0.0 | 44 | |
Municipalities | Tianjin | 59.3 | 13.0 | 20.4 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 3.7 | 0.0 | 54 |
Beijing | 64.6 | 12.5 | 18.8 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.1 | 0.0 | 96 | |
Shanghai | 61.3 | 12.6 | 22.7 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 119 | |
Chongqing | 55.3 | 16.0 | 22.3 | 1.1 | 3.2 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 94 | |
Hong Kong | 39.1 | 2.7 | 41.8 | 1.8 | 10.9 | 2.7 | 0.9 | 110 | |
Southern China | Anhui | 60.0 | 12.6 | 20.7 | 1.5 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 135 |
Hubei | 58.7 | 15.6 | 19.3 | 0.9 | 2.8 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 109 | |
Hunan | 60.0 | 13.0 | 21.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 100 | |
Sichuan | 57.3 | 12.0 | 20.5 | 0.9 | 6.0 | 2.6 | 0.9 | 117 | |
Jiangsu | 56.8 | 12.9 | 23.7 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 0.7 | 139 | |
Zhejiang | 52.5 | 11.3 | 26.9 | 1.3 | 5.0 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 160 | |
Jiangxi | 52.5 | 10.1 | 29.1 | 0.7 | 6.1 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 148 | |
Guizhou | 54.0 | 11.5 | 24.8 | 0.9 | 6.2 | 2.7 | 0.0 | 113 | |
Fujian | 39.8 | 6.6 | 35.7 | 1.5 | 12.2 | 3.6 | 0.5 | 196 | |
Guangdong | 37.4 | 5.8 | 39.8 | 1.0 | 12.1 | 3.4 | 0.5 | 206 | |
Guangxi | 43.6 | 5.6 | 35.9 | 1.5 | 10.3 | 2.6 | 0.5 | 195 | |
Yunnan | 42.2 | 7.2 | 34.1 | 0.9 | 10.8 | 4.5 | 0.4 | 223 | |
Island provinces | Taiwan | 38.4 | 4.9 | 40.0 | 1.6 | 11.4 | 3.2 | 0.5 | 185 |
Hainan | 37.0 | 4.2 | 37.0 | 1.2 | 16.4 | 3.6 | 0.6 | 165 | |
Glossary
- Alien plants, or non-native plants
-
are plants living outside their native distributional range, which have arrived there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental.
- Naturalized plants
-
are non-native plants spread into the wild and theirs reproduction are sufficient to maintain their population. When a plant naturalizes in an area, this can be either a “good” or a “bad” thing, depending on your opinion of the particular naturalized plant.
- Invasive alien plants
-
are plants that are not native to a specific location (an introduced species); and have a tendency to spread, which is believed to cause damage to the environment, human economy and/or human health.
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Chen, C., Wang, QH., Wu, JY. et al. Historical introduction, geographical distribution, and biological characteristics of alien plants in China. Biodivers Conserv 26, 353–381 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1246-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1246-z