Abstract
Fragmentation of forest landscapes and structural degradation of woodlands have a holistic negative effect on biodiversity. Bats are considered as indicators of woodland’s structural quality. However, as bats commute long distances on a nightly basis, their diversity should also be limited by large-scale drivers such as landscape and species availability in the region. Therefore we examined roles of the local species pool, landscape structure and habitat properties on species richness of bats through three spatial scales with emphasis on top–down relationships. Our aim for conservation ecology was to evaluate habitat quality and the importance of stand origin, i.e. contrast between mature forests and old parks. Bats were surveyed in 28 landscape windows, which consisted of at least one park and forest site. In total we sampled 63 deciduous woodlands in Estonia. In each site we sampled two microhabitats: edge and stand interior. Bat species richness was mostly explained by large-scale drivers, such as local species pool and landscape composition within 1 km radius. Stand properties had a weaker effect, driven by understory clutter. At the finest scale, the importance of edge habitats was emphasized by greater species richness at the edge in comparison to the stand interior and the edge’s predictive power on species richness in the stand interior. Habitat origin (park vs. forest) was an important aspect only for small-scale species richness, specifically in woodland interiors. The conservation policy of woodland bats should be based on complex multi-scale planning, in which natural and anthropogenic woodlands can be considered as a single land-cover type. To provide optimal foraging habitat for bats, the forest landscape should be diversified with integrated small waterbodies and canopy gaps with sharp edges.
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Acknowledgments
This project was supported by Tartu University via target-financing project SF0180012s09, by the Estonian Science Agency (project no. 7878) and via the ERA-Net BiodivERsA project smallFOREST, and the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund (the Centre of Excellence FIBIR). Derettens OÜ (www.derettens.com) edited the use of English.
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Appendix
Appendix
Variables | Explanation |
---|---|
Stand composition | |
Abundance of broadleaved trees in the stand | Abundance of tree species was estimated visually on three-level scale: 1—single or very scarce, 2—few or some, 3—dominating |
Abundance of Populus tremula in the stand | |
Abundance of Betula sp. trees in the stand | |
Abundance of Picea abies in the stand | |
Abundance of Pinus sylvestris in the stand | |
Stand structure | |
Understory: 1–4 m | Estimated visually as a percentage of cover in a radius of 30 m |
Intermediate layer: 4–10 m | Estimated visually as a percentage of cover in a radius of 30 m |
Overstory: >10 m | Estimated visually as a percentage of cover in a radius of 30 m |
Windthrow | Binominal variable |
Special shaped trees | Binominal variable |
Presence of potential roost sites in trees | |
Holes | Binominal variable |
Loose bark | Binominal variable |
Fungi on stem | Binominal variable |
Pooled average holes, loosebark nad fungi | Continuous variable |
Local landscape | |
Presence of water bodies in the vicinity | Binominal variable |
Presence of ditches in the vicinity | Binominal variable |
Temporary wet hollows | Binominal variable |
Woodland slope/flat | Binominal variable |
Landscape composition | |
The percent of water body cover | Estimated in buffers with sizes of 250, 500 and 1,000 m |
The percent of open land cover | Estimated in buffers with sizes of 250, 500 and 1,000 m |
The percent of area covered by yards | Estimated in buffers with sizes of 250, 500 and 1,000 m |
Pooled length of woodland edges | Estimated in buffers with sizes of 250, 500 and 1,000 m |
Count. of buildings | Estimated in buffers with sizes of 250, 500 and 1,000 m |
Average distance to two nearest waterbodies | Measured within 3 km |
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Kalda, R., Kalda, O., Lõhmus, K. et al. Multi-scale ecology of woodland bat the role of species pool, landscape complexity and stand structure. Biodivers Conserv 24, 337–353 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0811-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0811-6