Abstract
Giving land managers the ability to predict invasion patterns can provide planning tools for acquisition and management of protected areas. We compared the effects of roads and streams, two substantial pathways for delivery of invasive plant propagules and sources of disturbance that may facilitate invasions, on the abundance of non-native invasive plants in 27 protected areas in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. As an extension of our road analysis, we also evaluated specific road type as a predictor of protected area invadedness. We found that road and stream predictors did not improve on a model that included only other covariates (e.g., distance to an urban area, average canopy cover, average slope, edge-to-interior ratio, percent agricultural land, and percent developed land). In this model, only percent agricultural land was marginally significant in predicting parcel invadedness. However, we found that four-wheel drive (4WD) roads did predict protected area invadedness well relative to other road types (primary, secondary, and local) and better than a covariates-only model. The role of 4WD road density in predicting protected area invadedness may be explained by their relation to recreation, the unmaintained nature of 4WD roads, or the accumulation of mud and plant materials on 4WD vehicles. Although we found overall streams and roads in general to be poor predictors of invadedness of protected areas by invasive plants, we do propose that our finding of a relationship between plant invasions and density of 4WD roads merits further investigation in the future.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Armsworth PR, Fishburn IS, Davies ZG, Gilbert J, Leaver N, Gaston KJ (2012) The size, concentration, and growth of biodiversity-conservation nonprofits. Bioscience 62:271–281. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.3.8
Armsworth PR, Jackson HB, Cho S, Clark M, Fargione JE, Iacona GD, Kim T, Larson ER, Minney T, Sutton NA (2018) Is conservation right to go big? Protected area size and conservation return-on-investment. Biol Conserv 225:229–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.07.005
Aronson MFJ, Patel MV, O’Neill KM, Ehrenfeld JG (2017) Urban riparian systems function as corridors for both native and invasive plant species. Biol Invasions 19:3645–3657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1583-1
Assaeed AM, Al-Rowaily SL, El-Bana MI, Abood AAA, Dar BAM, Hegazy AK (2018) Impact of off-road vehicles on soil and vegetation in a desert rangeland in Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.05.001 (in press)
Barlow KM, Mortensen DA, Drohan PJ, Averill KM (2017) Unconventional gas development facilitates plant invasions. J Environ Manag 202:208–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.07.005
Barton K (2018) MuMIn: multi-model inference. R package version 1.40.4. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn. Accessed 12 Feb 2018
Brooks ML, D’Antonio CM, Richardson DM, Grace JB, Keeley JE, DiTomaso JM, Hobbs RJ, Pellant M, Pyke D (2004) Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. Bioscience 54:677–688. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054%5b0677:EOIAPO%5d2.0.CO;2
Brown RL, Peet RK (2003) Diversity and invasibility of Southern Appalachian plant communities. Ecology 84:32–39. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084%5b0032:DAIOSA%5d2.0.CO;2
Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodal inference. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/b97636
Cadenasso ML, Pickett STA (2001) Effect of edge structure on the flux of species into forest interiors. Conserv Biol 15:91–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2001.99309.x
Castro AJ, Martín-Lopez B, Lopez E, Plieninger T, Alcaraz-Segura D, Vaughn CC, Cabello J (2015) Do protected areas networks ensure the supply of ecosystem services? Spatial patterns of two nature reserve systems in semi-arid Spain. Appl Geogr 60:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.02.012
Christen DC, Matlack GR (2009) The habitat and conduit functions of roads in the spread of three invasive plant species. Biol Invasions 11:453–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-008-9262-x
Cole DN, Marion JL (1988) Recreation impacts in some riparian forests of the Eastern United States. Environ Manag 12:99–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01867381
Dark SJ (2004) The biogeography of invasive alien plants in California: an application of GIS and spatial regression analysis. Divers Distrib 10:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2004.00054.x
DeFerrari CM, Naiman RJ (1994) A multi-scale assessment of the occurrence of exotic plants on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. J Veg Sci 5:247–258. https://doi.org/10.2307/3236157
Dormann CF, Elith J, Bacher S, Buchmann C, Carl C, Carré G, García Marquéz JR, Gruber B, Lafourcade B, Leitão PJ, Münkemüller T, McClean C, Osborne PR, Reineking B, Schröder B, Skidmore AK, Zurell S, Lautenbach S (2012) Collinearity: a review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography 26:27–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07348.x
Eiswerth ME, Donaldson SG, Johnson WS (2000) Potential environmental impacts and economic damages of Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in Western Nevada and Northeastern California. Weed Technol 14:511–518. https://doi.org/10.1614/0890-037X(2000)014%5b0511:PEIAED%5d2.0.CO;2
Eschtruth AK, Battles JJ (2009) Assessing the relative importance of disturbance, herbivory, diversity, and propagule pressure in exotic plant invasion. Ecol Monogr 79:265–280. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0221.1
Esri (2017) ArcGIS Version 10.5. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., Redlands, CA
Fishburn IS, Boyer AG, Kareiva P, Gaston KJ, Armsworth PR (2013) Changing spatial patterns of conservation investment by a major land trust. Biol Conserv 161:223–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.02.007
Flory SL, Clay K (2009) Effects of roads and forest successional age on experimental plant invasions. Biol Conserv 142:2531–2537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.05.024
Forman RTT, Alexander LE (1998) Roads and their major ecological effects. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 29:207–231. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.207
Gavier-Pizarro GI, Radeloff VC, Stewart SI, Huebner CD, Keuler NS (2010) Housing is positively associated with invasive exotic plant species richness in New England, USA. Ecol Appl 20:1913–1925. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-2168.1
Gelbard JL, Belnap J (2003) Roads as conduits for exotic plant invasions in a semiarid landscape. Conserv Biol 17:420–432. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01408.x
Greenberg CH, Crownover SH, Gordon DR (1997) Roadside soils: a corridor for invasion of xeric shrub by nonindigenous plants. Nat Areas J 17:99–109
Greene MT, Blossey B (2012) Lost in the weeds: Ligustrum sinense reduces native plant growth and survival. Biol Invasions 14:139–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-9990-1
Guo Q, Rejmánek M, Wen J (2012) Geographical, socioeconomic, and ecological determinants of exotic plant naturalization in the United States: insights and updates from improved data. NeoBiota 12:41–55. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.12.2419
Hawbaker TJ, Radeloff VC (2004) Roads and landscape pattern in Northern Wisconsin based on a comparison of four road data sources. Conserv Biol 18:1233–1244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-9990-1
Homer CG, Dewitz JA, Yang L, Jin S, Danielson P, Xian G, Coulston J, Herold ND, Wickham JD, Megown K (2015) Completion of the 2011 National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States-Representing a decade of land cover change information. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 81:345–354
Hood WG, Naiman RJ (2000) Vulnerability of riparian zones to invasion by exotic vascular plants. Plant Ecol 148:105–114. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009800327334
Hutchinson TF, Vankat JL (1997) Invasibility and effects of amur honeysuckle in Southwestern Ohio forests. Conserv Biol 11:1117–1124. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96001.x
Iacona GD, Price FD, Armsworth PR (2014) Predicting the invadedness of protected areas. Divers Distrib 20:430–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12171
Iacona GD, Price FD, Armsworth PR (2016) Predicting the presence and cover of management relevant invasive plant species on protected areas. J Environ Manag 166:537–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.052
Iannone BV, Potter KM, Guo Q, Liebhold AM, Pijanowski BC, Oswalt CM, Fei S (2016) Biological invasion hotspots: a trait-based perspective reveals new sub-continental patterns. Ecography 39:961–969. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.01973
Joly M, Bertrand P, Gbangou RY, White M, Dubé J, Lavoie C (2011) Paving the way for invasive species: road type and the spread of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). Environ Manag 48:514–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9711-7
Keller RP, Frang K, Lodge DM (2007) Preventing the spread of invasive species: economic benefits of intervention guided by ecological predictions. Conserv Biol 22:80–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00811.x
Kohlhepp PF, Sanders TG, Tackett CC, Walters RW (1995) Roadside vegetation management. Colorado Department of Transportation. https://www.codot.gov/programs/research/pdfs/1996/roadsidevegetation.pdf. Accessed 13 Oct 2018
Kuebbing SE, Simberloff D (2015) Missing the bandwagon: nonnative species impacts still concern managers. NeoBiota 25:73–86. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.25.8921
Kuhman TR, Pearson SM, Turner MG (2010) Effects of land-use history and the contemporary landscape on non-native plant invasion at local and regional scales in the forest-dominated southern Appalachians. Landsc Ecol 25:1433–1445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-010-9500-3
Lemke D, Hulme PE, Brown JA, Tadesse W (2011) Distribution modelling of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) invasion in the Cumberland Plateau and Mountain Region, USA. For Ecol Manag 262:139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.03.014
León Cordero R, Torchelsen FP, Overbeck GE, Anand M (2016) Analyzing the landscape characteristics promoting the establishment and spread of gorse (Ulex europaeus) along roadsides. Ecosphere 7:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1201
Lockwood JL, Cassey P, Blackburn T (2005) The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends Ecol Evol 20:223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.004
Lodge DM, Simonin PW, Burgiel SW, Keller RP, Bossenbroek JM, Jerde CL, Kramer AM, Rutherford ES, Barnes MA, Wittmann ME, Chadderton WL, Apriesnig JL, Beletsky D, Cooke RM, Drake JM, Egan SP, Finnoff DC, Gantz CA, Grey RK, Hoff MH, Howeth JG, Jensen RA, Larson ER, Mandrak NE, Mason DM, Martinez FA, Newcomb TJ, Rothlisberger JD, Tucker AJ, Warziniack TW, Zhang H (2016) Risk analysis and bioeconomics of invasive species to inform policy and management. Annu Rev Environ Resour 41:453–488. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085532
Lonsdale WM, Lane AM (1994) Tourist vehicles as vectors of weed seeds in Kakadu National Park, Northern Australia. Biol Conserv 69:277–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(94)90427-8
Mack RN, Simberloff D, Lonsdale WM, Evans H, Clout M, Bazzaz FA (2000) Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecol Appl 10:689–710. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010%5b0689:BICEGC%5d2.0.CO;2
Miller NP, Matlack GR (2010) Population expansion in an invasive grass, Microstegium vimineum: a test of the channelled diffusion model. Divers Distrib 16:816–826. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00690.x
Mortensen DA, Rauschert ESJ, Nord AN, Jones BP (2009) Forest roads facilitate the spread of invasive plants. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 2:191–199. https://doi.org/10.1614/IPSM-08-125.1
Moustakas A, Voutsela A, Katsanevakis S (2018) Sampling alien species inside and outside protected areas: does it matter? Sci Total Environ 625:194–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.198
Nilsson C, Brown RL, Jansson R, Merritt DM (2010) The role of hydrochory in structuring riparian and wetland vegetation. Biol Rev 85:837–858. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00129.x
Oswalt SN, Smith WB (2014) U.S. Forest Resource Facts and Historical Trends (Report No. FS-1035). Washington, D.C: U.S. Forest Service. https://www.fia.fs.fed.us/library/brochures/docs/2012/ForestFacts_1952-2012_English.pdf. Accessed Dec 2018
Oswalt CM, Fei S, Guo W, Iannone BV III, Oswalt SN, Pijanowski BC, Potter KM (2015) A subcontinental view of forest plant invasions. NeoBiota 24:49–54. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.24.4526
Paradis E, Claude J, Strimmer K (2004) APE: analyses of phylogenetics and evolution in R language. Bioinformatics 20:289–290. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btg412
Parendes LA, Jones JA (2000) Role of light availability and dispersal in exotic plant invasion along roads and streams in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon. Conserv Biol 14:64–75. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99089.x
Pejchar L, Mooney HA (2009) Invasive species, ecosystem services and human well-being. Trends Ecol Evol 24:497–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.016
Pickering CM, Hill W, Newsome D, Leung Y (2010) Comparing hiking, mountain biking and horse riding impacts on vegetation and soils in Australia and the United States of America. J Environ Manag 91:551–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.025
Rauschert ESJ, Mortensen DA, Bloser SM (2017) Human-mediated dispersal via rural road maintenance can move invasive propagules. Biol Invasions 19:2047–2058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1416-2
Rew LJ, Brummer TJ, Pollnac FW, Larson CD, Taylor KT, Taper ML, Fleming JD, Balbach HE (2018) Hitching a ride: seed accrual rates on different types of vehicles. J Environ Manag 206:547–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.10.060
Richardson DM, Holmes PM, Esler KJ, Galatowitsch SM, Stromberg JC, Kirkman SP, Pyšek P, Hobbs RJ (2007) Riparian vegetation: degradation, alien plant invasions, and restoration prospects. Divers Distrib 13:126–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1366-9516.2006.00314.x
Riitters K, Potter K, Iannone BV III, Oswalt C, Fei S, Guo Q (2017) Landscape correlates of forest plant invasions: a high-resolution analysis across the eastern United States. Divers Distrib 24:274–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12680
Rodrigues ASL, Akçakaya HR, Andelman SJ, Bakarr MI, Boitani L, Brooks TM, Chanson JS, Fishpool LDC, Da Fonseca GAB, Gaston KJ, Hoffmann M, Marquet PA, Pilgrim JD, Pressey RL, Schipper J, Sechrest W, Stuart SN, Underhill LG, Waller RW, Watts MEJ, Yan X (2004) Global gap analysis: priority regions for expanding the global protected-area network. Bioscience 54:1092–1100. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054%5b1092:GGAPRF%5d2.0.CO;2
Rothlisberger JD, Chadderton WL, McNulty J, Lodge DM (2010) Aquatic invasive species transport via trailered boats: what is being moved, who is moving it, and what can be done. Fisheries 35:121–132. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446-35.3.121
R Core Team (2017) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/. Accessed Sept 2017
Seebens H, Blackburn TM, Dyer EE, Genovesi P, Hulme PE, Jeschke JM, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger G, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A, Moser D, Nishino M, Pearman D, Pergl J, Rabitsch W, Rojas-Sandoval J, Roques A, Rorke S, Rossinelli S, Roy HE, Scalera R, Schindler S, Štajerová K, Tokarska-Guzik B, van Kleunen M, Walker K, Weigelt P, Yamanaka T, Essl F (2017) No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nat Commun 8:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14435
Simberloff D (2009) The role of propagule pressure in biological invasions. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 40:81–102. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120304
Simberloff D, Martin J, Genovesi P, Maris V, Wardle DA, Aronson J, Courchamp F, Galil B, García-Berthou E, Pascal M, Pyšek P, Sousa R, Tabacchi R, Vilà M (2013) Impacts of biological invasions: what’s what and the way forward. Trends Ecol Evol 28:58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.07.013
Skultety D, Matthews JW (2017) Urbanization and roads drive non-native plant invasion in the Chicago Metropolitan region. Biol Invasions 19:2553–2566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1464-7
Soares-Filho B, Moutinho P, Nepstad D, Anderson A, Rodrigues H, Garcia R, Dietzsch L, Merry F, Bowman M, Hissa L, Silvestrini R, Maretti C (2010) Role of Brazilian Amazon protected areas in climate change mitigation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:10821–10826. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0913048107
Taylor K, Brummer T, Taper ML, Wing A, Rew LJ (2012) Human-mediated long-distance dispersal: an empirical evaluation of seed dispersal by vehicles. Divers Distrib 18:942–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00926.x
Thébaud C, Debussche M (1991) Rapid invasion of Fraxinus ornus L. along the Hérault River system in Southern France: the importance of seed dispersal by water. J Biogeogr 18:7–12. https://doi.org/10.2307/2845240
Trombulak SC, Frissell CA (2000) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conserv Biol 14:18–30. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99084.x
U.S. Census Bureau (2016a) Roads National Geodatabase. Suitland, Maryland, U.S. https://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger-geodatabases.html. Accessed Nov 2017
U.S. Census Bureau (2016b) Cartographic Boundary Shapefiles—Urban Areas. Suitland, Maryland, U.S. https://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/cbf/cbf_ua.html. Accessed Nov 2017
U.S. Census Bureau (2016c) MTFCC Codes for 2016 and earlier TIGER Products. Suitland, Maryland, U.S. https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/mtfcc.html. Accessed Nov 2017
U.S. Geological Survey (2005) National Hydrography Dataset Plus V2. Reston, Virginia, U.S. https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/ngp/national-hydrography. Accessed Nov 2017
U.S. Geological Survey (2017) National Elevation Dataset. Reston, Virginia, U.S. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/NED. Accessed Nov 2017
Veldman JW, Putz FE (2010) Long-distance dispersal of invasive grasses by logging vehicles in a tropical dry forest. Biotropica 42:697–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2010.00647.x
von der Lippe M, Kowarik I (2007) Long-distance dispersal of plants by vehicles as a driver of plant invasions. Conserv Biol 21:986–996. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00722.x
Von Holle B, Motzkin G (2007) Historical land use and environmental determinants of nonnative plant distribution in coastal southern New England. Biol Conserv 136:33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.10.044
Von Holle B, Simberloff D (2005) Ecological resistance to biological invasion overwhelmed by propagule pressure. Ecology 86:3212–3218. https://doi.org/10.1890/05-0427
Watkins RZ, Chen J, Pickens J, Brosofske KD (2003) Effects of forest roads on understory plants in a managed hardwood landscape. Conserv Biol 17:411–419. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01285.x
Williams WH, Henderson K (2002) Tree and brush control for county road right-of-way. Iowa Department of Transportation. https://www.tallgrassprairiecenter.org/sites/default/files/Tech_Manual/roadside_brush_control_manual.pdf. Accessed 13 Oct 2018
Yates ED, Levia DF Jr, Williams CL (2004) Recruitment of three non-native invasive plants into a fragmented forest in southern Illinois. For Ecol Manag 190:119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2003.11.008
Zwaenepoel A, Roovers P, Hermy M (2006) Motor vehicles as vectors of plant species from road verges in a suburban environment. Basic Appl Ecol 6:83–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2005.04.003
Acknowledgements
This projected was supported by a Jonathan Baldwin Turner graduate fellowship to MKD, USDA McIntire-Stennis Project 1011952 to ERL, and National Science Foundation Grant 121142 to PRA. We are grateful to Amaryllis K. Adey, Christopher W. Evans, and Jeffrey W. Matthews for comments on early drafts that improved this manuscript, and Heather Bird Jackson for useful discussions on the dataset. Our manuscript was improved by comments from two anonymous reviewers. We also thank The Nature Conservancy for providing data and site access.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Daniels, M.K., Iacona, G.D., Armsworth, P.R. et al. Do roads or streams explain plant invasions in forested protected areas?. Biol Invasions 21, 3121–3134 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-019-02036-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-019-02036-3