Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Submersed herbicides and thrips biological control effectively reduce biomass of alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), a widespread aquatic invasive plant

  • Published:
BioControl Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Alligatorweed [Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.; Amaranthaceae] is a globally problematic, aquatic invasive weed with a long history as a target for control efforts. Although chemical and biological control methods have been widely studied to manage alligatorweed infestations, many research questions remain unanswered. This paper seeks to assess the efficacy of two understudied alligatorweed control methods: submersed herbicide applications and biological control with alligatorweed thrips (Amynothrips andersoni O’Neill 1968; Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae). These assessments were carried out in mesocosm experiments, in two stages. The first stage tested five herbicides applied as submersed injections at two different rates, and the second tested the same five herbicides alone and in combination with alligatorweed thrips biological control. The submersed herbicides used in this study were penoxsulam, bispyribac-sodium, imazamox, fluridone, and topramezone. The control effect of these treatments was measured as percent biomass reduction 12 weeks after treatment. These data showed that, with the exception of bispyribac-sodium, submersed herbicide application was generally successful at reducing alligatorweed biomass. Also, thrips biological control was broadly effective at reducing alligatorweed biomass. However, these data did not identify a specific herbicide whose control was significantly benefitted by thrips biological control at the rates these herbicides were applied. While the results of this study show promise for combining submersed herbicides and alligatorweed thrips for integrated alligatorweed management, questions remain regarding this combined control strategy including whether or not these results translate to the field.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data used in this study is deposited at the Mississippi State University institutional repository and is available at: https://doi.org/10.54718/GLZZ3432.

Code availability

Code used in this study is deposited at the Mississippi State University institutional repository and is available at: https://doi.org/10.54718/GLZZ3432.

References

  • Bhalla T, Kumar S, Rana SS (2022) Evaluation of herbicides to control alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) in mid hills of Himachal Pradesh. Himachal J Agric Res 48:205–209

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowmer KH, Eberbach PL, McCorkelle G (1993) Uptake and translocation of 14C-glyphosate in Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. (alligator weed) I. Rhizome concentrations required for inhibition. Weed Res 33:53–57

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buckingham GR (1996) Biological control of alligatorweed, Alternanthera philoxeroides, the world’s first aquatic weed success story. Castanea 61:232–243

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley YM, Rees M, Sheppard AW, Smyth MJ (2005) Stable coexistence of an invasive plant and biocontrol agent: a parameterized coupled plant–herbivore model. J Appl Ecol 42:70–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns EE, Prischmann-Voldseth DA, Gramig GG (2013) Integrated management of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) with insect biological control and plant competition under variable soil nutrients. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 6:512–520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clements D, Dugdale TM, Butler KL, Hunt TD (2014) Management of aquatic alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) in an early stage of invasion. Manag Biol Invasions 5:327–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clements D, Dugdale TM, Butler KL, Florentine SK, Sillitoe J (2017) Herbicide efficacy for aquatic Alternanthera philoxeroides management in an early stage of invasion: integrating above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass and viable stem fragmentation. Weed Res 57:257–266

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cofrancesco AF (1988) Alligatorweed survey of ten southern states. Environmental Laboratory (U.S.), Libertyville

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornell JH (1949) Eradication of emergent aquatic vegetation with 2,4-D: particular emphasis upon alligatorweed. Prog Fish-Culturist 11:113–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coulson JR (1977) Biological control of alligatorweed, 1959-1972: A review and evaluation. United States Department of Agriculture.

  • Cox MC, Wersal RM, Madsen JD (2014) Evaluations of foliar applied herbicides for alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) control. J Aquat Plant Manage 52:27–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuda JP (2021) Introduction to biological control of aquatic plants. In: Gettys LA, Haller WT, Petty DG (eds) Biology and control of aquatic plants: a best management practices handbook, 4th edn. Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Foundation, Marietta, pp 139–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Deguine J-P, Aubertot J-N, Flor RJ, Lescourret F, Wyckhuys KAG, Ratnadass A (2021) Integrated pest management: good intentions, hard realities. Rev Agron Sustain Dev 41:38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dugdale TM, Champion PD (2012) Control of alligator weed with herbicides: a review. Plant Prot Q 27:70–82

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emerine SE, Richardson RJ, True SL, West AM, Roten RL (2010) Greenhouse response of six aquatic invasive weeds to imazamox. J Aquat Plant Manage 48:105–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox J, Weisberg S, Price B, Adler D, Bates D, Baud-Bovy G, Bolker B, Ellison S, Firth D, Friendly M, Gorjanc G, Graves S, Heiberger R, Krivitsky P, Laboissiere R, Maechler M, Monette G, Murdoch D, Nilsson H, Ogle D, Ripley B, Short T, Venables W, Walker S, Winsemius D, Zeileis A, R-Core (2023) car: Companion to applied regression. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/car/index.html

  • Gettys LA, Thayer KL, Heilman MA, Van Goethem EM (2021) Effect of florpyrauxifen-benzyl concentration-exposure time on hygrophila and rotala. J Aquat Plant Manag 59:79–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Goode ABC, Tipping PW, Gettys LA, Knowles BK, Pokorny E, Salinas LS (2022) Integrating herbicide rates, coverage, and classical biological control insects (Megamelus scutellaris, Neochetina eichhorniae, and Neochetina bruchi) to manage Pontederia (Eichhornia) crassipes. Biol Control 170:104930

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goolsby JA, Makinson J, Purcell M (2000) Seasonal phenology of the gall-making fly Fergusonina sp. (Diptera: Fergusoninidae) and its implications for biological control of Melaleuca quinquenervia. Aust J Entomol 39:336–343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haller WT (2021) Aquatic herbicide application methods. In: Gettys LA, Haller WT, Petty DG (eds) Biology and control of aquatic plants: a best management practices handbook, 4th edn. Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Foundation, Marietta, pp 191–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Harms NE, Shearer JF (2017) Early-season dynamics of alligatorweed biological control by Agasicles hygrophila in Louisiana and Mississippi. J Aquat Plant Manag 55:89–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrera-Reddy AM, Carruthers RI, Mills NJ (2012) Integrated management of Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) using biological control. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 5:69–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann JH, Moran VC, Zimmermann HG, Impson FAC (2020) Biocontrol of a prickly pear cactus in South Africa: Reinterpreting the analogous, renowned case in Australia. J Appl Ecol 57:2475–2484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstra DE, Champion PD (2010) Herbicide trials for the control of alligatorweed. J Aquat Plant Manag 48:79–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell AW, Hofstra DE, Heilman MA, Richardson RJ (2022) Response of parrotfeather watermilfoil and alligatorweed to foliar florpyrauxifen-benzyl applications. J Aquat Plant Manage 60:53–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Julien MH, Bourne AS, Low VHK (1992) Growth of the weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Martius) Grisebach, (alligator weed) in aquatic and terrestrial habitats in Australia. Plant Prot Q 7:102–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Julien MH, Skarratt B, Maywald GF (1995) Potential geographical distribution of alligator weed and its biological control by Agasicles hygrophila. J Aquat Plant Manage 33:55–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight IA, Harms NE (2022) Improving biological control of the invasive aquatic weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides: cold tolerance of Amynothrips andersoni (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) and the short-term feeding impact on different host haplotypes. BioControl 67:443–454

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lavergne S, Molofsky J (2006) Control strategies for the invasive reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) in North American wetlands: the need for an integrated management plan. Nat Areas J 26:208–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemon J, Bolker B, Oom S, Klein E, Rowlingson B, Wickham H, Tyagi A, Eterradossi O, Grothendieck G, Toews M, Kane J, Turner R, Witthoft C, Stander J, Petzoldt T, Duursma R, Biancotto E, Levy O, Dutang C, Solymos P, Engelmann R, Hecker M, Steinbeck F, Borchers H, Singmann H, Toal T, Ogle D, Baral D, Groemping U, Venables B, The CRAN Team, Murdoch D (2023) plotrix: Various plotting functions. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/plotrix/index.html

  • Maddox DM (1968) Bionomics of an alligatorweed flea beetle, Agasicles sp. in Argentina. Ann Entomol Soc Am 61:1299–1305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddox DM, Mayfield A (1979) Biology and life history of Amynothrips andersoni, a thrip for the biological control of alligatorweed. Ann Entomol Soc Am 72:136–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mudge CR, Harms NE, Nachtrieb JG (2013) Interactions of herbicides, surfactants, and the giant salvinia weevil (Cyrtobagous salviniae) for control of giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta). J Aquat Plant Manage 51:77–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Netherland MD, Getsinger KD, Turner EG (1993) Fluridone concentration and exposure time requirements for control of Eurasian watermilfoil and hydrilla. J Aquat Plant Manage 31:189–194

    Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2021) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. https://www.r-project.org/

  • Racelis AE, Goolsby JA, Moran P (2009) Seasonality and movement of adventive populations of the arundo wasp (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae), a biological control agent of giant reed in the Lower Rio Grande Basin in south Texas. Southwest Entomol 34:347–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rejmánková E (1992) Ecology of creeping macrophytes with special reference to Ludwigia peploides (H. B. K.) Raven. Aquat Bot 43:283–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson RJ, Haug EJ, Netherland MD (2016) Response of seven aquatic plants to a new arylpicolinate herbicide. J Aquat Plant Manage 54:26–31

    Google Scholar 

  • RStudio Team (2020) RStudio: Integrated developement for R. https://www.rstudio.com/

  • Sánchez-Restrepo AF, Reche VA, Cabrera N, Pan X, Pratt P, Sosa AJ (2023) What distribution models of alligator weed in its native and invaded ranges tell us about its invasion story and biological control. Entomol Exp Appl 171:1009–1018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinbauer MJ, Edwards PB, Hoskins M, Schatz T, Forno IW (2000) Seasonal abundance of insect biocontrol agents of Mimosa pigra in the northern territory. Aust J Entomol 39:328–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stiling P, Cornelissen T (2005) What makes a successful biocontrol agent? A meta-analysis of biological control agent performance. Biol Control 34:236–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanveer A, Ali HH, Manalil S, Raza A, Chauhan BS (2018) Eco-biology and management of alligator weed [Alternanthera philoxeroides) (Mart.) Griseb.]: a review. Wetlands 38:1067–1079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tipping PW, Gettys LA, Minteer CR, Foley JR, Sardes SN (2017) Herbivory by biological control agents improves herbicidal control of waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Invasive Plant Sci Manag 10:271–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (2008) Integrated vegetation management. US EPA Office of Pesticide Programs

  • Vogt GB, McGuire, JU, Cushman AD (1979) Probable evolution and morphological variation in South American disonychine flea beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and their amaranthaceous hosts. United States Department of Agriculture,

  • Vogt GB, Qumbly, PC, Kay SH (1992) Effects of weather on the biological control of alligatorweed in the lower Mississippi Valley Region, 1973–83. United States Department of Agriculture

  • Wahl CF, Mudge CR, Diaz R (2018) Does the aquatic herbicide 2,4-D and a nonionic surfactant affect survival of salvinia weevil? J Aquat Plant Manage 56:113–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Ismail M, Huang W, Wang Y, Ding J (2019) Population dynamics and overwintering of a biological control beetle, Agasicles hygrophila, on a nontarget plant Alternanthera sessilis, along a latitudinal gradient. J Pest Sci 92:835–845

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickham H, Chang W, Henry L, Pederson TL, Takahashi K, Wilke C, Woo K, Yutani H, Dunnington D, Posit, PBC (2023) ggplot2: Create elegant data visualisations using the grammar of graphics. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ggplot2/index.html

  • Wickham H (2023) tidyverse: Easily install and load the “tidyverse”. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/tidyverse/index.html

  • Willingham SD, Senseman SA, McCauley GN, Chandler JM (2008) Effect of temperature and propanil on penoxsulam efficacy, absorption, and translocation in alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides). Weed Sci 56:780–784

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willingham SD, Bagavathiannan MV, Carson KS, Cogdill TJ, McCauley GN, Chandler JM (2015) Evaluation of herbicide options for alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) control in rice. Weed Technol 29:793–799

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission for providing funding for this and other studies on alligatorweed ecology and management (grant # FWS-801-037-2021-MSU). We thank the MidSouth and South Carolina chapters of the Aquatic Plant Management Society whose scholarships helped fund this and other studies on alligatorweed ecology and management. We thank the following employees of the Aquatic Plant Research Facility whose work helped with the execution of this study: Jordan Besson, Dylan Crum, Christopher Grant, Joseph Kauppi, Maxwell Gebhart, Jillian Skidmore, Esther St. Pierre, and Phillip Wittman. We thank Drs. Ian Knight and Nathan Harms for providing insight into the logistics and biology of Amynothrips andersoni rearing and research. Finally, we thank the two anonymous reviewers whose critical reviews and constructive comments helped improve this manuscript.

Funding

This research on invasive alligatorweed was funded by the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission (grant # FWS-801-037-2021-MSU).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA

    Samuel A. Schmid & Gary N. Ervin

  2. Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA

    Gray Turnage

Authors
  1. Samuel A. Schmid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gray Turnage
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gary N. Ervin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

GT and GNE secured funding necessary to perform this study. All authors contributed to the study conception and design. SAS performed methods, collected data, and analyzed results. SAS drafted the initial version of the manuscript. All authors critically revised subsequent versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Samuel A. Schmid.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

The authors report no conflicts of interest relevant to this study. Ethics regarding use of human participants and informed consent are not applicable to this study. Ethics regarding use of animals are not applicable to this study.

Additional information

Handling Editor: Michelle Rafter.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (PDF 895 KB)

Supplementary file2 (XLSX 28 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schmid, S.A., Turnage, G. & Ervin, G.N. Submersed herbicides and thrips biological control effectively reduce biomass of alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), a widespread aquatic invasive plant. BioControl (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-024-10262-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-024-10262-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation