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Does Low Dose Ionizing Radiation Cause Cancer? The Interplay of Epistemology and Ethics in Radiation Protection

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Abstract

In order to investigate the relationship between scientific evidence and social commitments this article addresses three questions: (1) does low dose ionizing radiation cause cancer? (2) Is the answer to this question different in a social setting than in a scientific context? (3) What are the consequences of the answers of 1 and 2 for the relationship between epistemology and ethics as played out in radiation protection? Conceptual analysis with basis in the philosophy of science, in particular traditional theories of causality. Whether low dose ionizing radiation causes cancer deeply depends on what we mean by causality. According to traditional scientific conceptions of causality it is not warranted to say that low dose ionizing radiation causes cancer. Standard approaches in radiation protection, however, imply that there is a causal connection, which is due to the strong social commitment in the field. There is a close relationship between social and scientific conceptions of causality, posing a series of challenges: one being that scientists covertly become moral experts, another one that the general public can be misinformed. There is a difference between causality in science and in policy making. Mixing these conceptions, as sometimes is done in radiation protection, can be misleading. Whether low dose ionizing radiation causes cancer is a social and not only a scientific issue. As such those who are warranted to have a say.

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Notes

  1. Search strategy: (("low dose ionizing radiation" or (("radiation" or “exposure”) and (“x-ray" or “radiology”)) and ("cancer" or "cell alterations" or "oncology"))[Title/Abstract]) AND (causation or causality or cause)[Text Word].

  2. Other detrimental health effects may occur, such as cell damage.

  3. Even more so, cancer does not occur every time with high dose exposure either, although other deterministic effects may be seen. It is worth noticing that there are very few instances in health care where we know the sufficient condition for a disease. There are also many interpretations of what is meant with “necessary” and “sufficient,” but this is beyond the scope of this article.

  4. Probabilistic conceptions of causality are oftentimes called “black box causality.” (De Vreese 2009).

  5. Other parameters may be used, such as “inferential weight,” “attributable fraction,” “etiological fraction,” “attestable cause” etc. However, such measures are based on scientists’ value judgments.

  6. The social norms in radiation protection are easily identified in the principles of ICRP: justification, optimization, and individual dose limits (Janssen et al. 2005).

  7. E.g., the precautionary principle is a norm for where to place the burden of proof when we are uncertain. It engrosses a bias of caution and safety (Tallacchini 2005).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for the Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, PO Box 1, 2802, Gjøvik, Norway

    Bjørn M. Hofmann

  2. Centre for Medical Ethics, University of Oslo, PO Box 1130, 0318, Oslo, Norway

    Bjørn M. Hofmann

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Correspondence to Bjørn M. Hofmann.

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Hofmann, B.M. Does Low Dose Ionizing Radiation Cause Cancer? The Interplay of Epistemology and Ethics in Radiation Protection. Axiomathes 28, 695–708 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10516-018-9403-5

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10516-018-9403-5

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