Abstract
Although many studies have examined reasons for sexting among young people, few have taken into account the underlying motivations associated with different reasons and how that may be associated with divergent positive or negative outcomes. This study addressed this gap by employing Self-determination Theory to assess how autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were related to subjective well-being and relationship quality among emerging adults. Online survey data from 267 emerging adults (72 men, 195 women) ages 18–25 who had sent sexually explicit images or videos of themselves through electronic means to a committed partner were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling. Autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were significantly related to pleasant affect, with autonomous motivation predicting more pleasant affect and controlled motivation predicting less pleasant affect. Autonomous motivations for sexting were related to enhanced relationship quality, whereas controlled motivations for sexting were related to decreased relationship quality. Neither form of motivation had a statistically significant relationship with unpleasant affect or life satisfaction. These results demonstrate that the quality of motivations for sexting among emerging adults in committed relationships may contribute to different outcomes, particularly in terms of relationship quality. Implications for counselors, educators, and practitioners working with emerging adults who sext are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
Available upon request.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Amundsen, R. (2019). “Kind of like making porn of yourself”: Understanding sexting through pornography. Feminist Media Studies, 19(4), 479–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1494617
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480.
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Sexting Motivations Questionnaire for adolescents and young adults. Rassegna Di Psicologia, 33(3), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.4558/8067-01
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2017). Sexting as the mirror on the wall: Body-esteem attribution, media models, and objectified-body consciousness. Journal of Adolescence, 61, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.10.006
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2021). Individual differences and developmental trends in sexting motivations. Current Psychology, 40, 4531–4540. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12144-019-00398-4
Brodie, Z. P., Wilson, C., & Scott, G. G. (2019). Sextual intercourse: Considering social–cognitive predictors and subsequent outcomes of sexting behavior in adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(8), 2367–2379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01497-w
Brunell, A. B., & Webster, G. D. (2013). Self-determination and sexual experience in dating relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 970–987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213485442
Burkett, M. (2015). Sex(t) talk: A qualitative analysis of young adults’ negotiations of the pleasures and perils of sexting. Sexuality & Culture, 19(4), 835–863. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12119-015-9295-0
Cornelius, T. L., Bell, K. M., Kistler, T., & Drouin, M. (2020). Consensual sexting among college students: the interplay of coercion and intimate partner aggression in perceived consequences of sexting. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197141
Currin, J. M., & Hubach, R. D. (2019). Motivations for nonuniversity-based adults who sext their relationship partners. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 45(4), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1526837
Currin, J. M., Ireland, M. E., Cox, K., & Golden, B. L. (2020a). Sextually aroused: A mixed-methods analysis of how it feels for romantic and sexual partners to send and receive sext messages. Computers in Human Behavior, 113, 106519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106519
Currin, J. M., Pascarella, L. A., & Hubach, R. D. (2020b). “To feel close when miles apart”: Qualitative analysis of motivations to sext in a relationship. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 35(2), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2020.1714024
Del Rey, R., Ojeda, M., Casas, J., Mora-Merchán, J. A., & Elipe, P. (2019). Sexting among adolescents: The emotional impact and influence of the need for popularity. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1828. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01828
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Dir, A. L., & Cyders, M. A. (2015). Risks, risk factors, and outcomes associated with phone and internet sexting among university students in the United States. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(6), 1675–1684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0370-7
Dir, A. L., Coskunpinar, A., Steiner, J. L., & Cyders, M. A. (2013). Understanding differences in sexting behaviors across gender, relationship status, and sexual identity, and the role of expectancies in sexting. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(8), 568–574. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0545
Döring, N., & Mohseni, M. R. (2018). Are online sexual activities and sexting good for adults’ sexual well-being? Results from a national online survey. International Journal of Sexual Health, 30(3), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2018.1491921
Drouin, M., & Tobin, E. (2014). Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults: Relations with attachment and sexual motivations. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 412–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.001
Drouin, M., Vogel, K. N., Surbey, A., & Stills, J. R. (2013). Let’s talk about sexting, baby: Computer-mediated sexual behaviors among young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(5), A25–A30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.030
Drouin, M., Ross, J., & Tobin, E. (2015). Sexting: A new, digital vehicle for intimate partner aggression? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001
Drouin, M., Coupe, M., & Temple, J. R. (2017). Is sexting good for your relationship? It depends…. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 749–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.018
Englander, E. (2019). What do we know about sexting, and when did we know it? Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(5), 577–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.08.004
Fletcher, G. J., Simpson, J. A., & Thomas, G. (2000). The measurement of perceived relationship quality components: A confirmatory factor analytic approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(3), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200265007
Fuzzell, L., Fedesco, H. N., Alexander, S. C., Fortenberry, J. D., & Shields, C. G. (2016). “I just think that doctors need to ask more questions”: Sexual minority and majority adolescents’ experiences talking about sexuality with healthcare providers. Patient Education and Counseling, 99(9), 1467–1472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2016.06.004
Gaine, G. S., & La Guardia, J. G. (2009). The unique contributions of motivations to maintain a relationship and motivations toward relational activities to relationship well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 33(2), 184–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-009-9120-x
Galovan, A. M., Drouin, M., & McDaniel, B. T. (2018). Sexting profiles in the United States and Canada: Implications for individual and relationship well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.017
Gravel, E. E., Pelletier, L. G., & Reissing, E. D. (2016). “Doing it” for the right reasons: Validation of a measurement of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation for sexual relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 92, 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.015
Gravel, E. E., Reissing, E. D., & Pelletier, L. G. (2019). Global, relational, and sexual motivation: A test of hierarchical versus heterarchical effects on well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(7), 2269–2289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0047-3
Henderson, L. (2011). Sexting and sexual relationships among teens and young adults. McNair Scholars Research Journal, 7(1), 31–39. https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/mcnair_journal/vol7/iss1/9
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hudson, H. K., & Marshall, S. A. (2017). Consequences and predictors of sexting among selected southern undergraduates. International Journal of Sexual Health, 30(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2017.1404540
Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2003). Sexual compliance: Gender, motivational, and relationship perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 40(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552169
JASP Team (2022). JASP (Version 0.16.2)[Computer software].
Jeanfreau, M. M., Wright, L., & Noguchi, K. (2019). Marital satisfaction and sexting behavior among individuals in relationships. The Family Journal, 27(1), 17–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480718819868
Katz, J., & Tirone, V. (2009). Women’s sexual compliance with male dating partners: Associations with investment in ideal womanhood and romantic well-being. Sex Roles, 60(5–6), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9566-4
Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52–54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52
Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., & Mellor, D. J. (2014). Sexting prevalence and correlates: A systematic literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.10.007
Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., Clancy, E., Mellor, D. J., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2019). Sexting and psychological distress: The role of unwanted and coerced sexts. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(4), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0291
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.
Kopecký, K. (2015). Sexting among Czech preadolescents and adolescents. Procedeia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 204, 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.289
Le, L. (2016). What’s your ‘sext’ drive? Examining female emerging adults’ experiences of sharing visual sexual content through communication technologies. [Master’s thesis, University of Alberta]. Education and Research Archive.
Lim, M. S., Vella, A. M., Horyniak, D. R., & Hellard, M. E. (2016). Exploring attitudes towards sexting of young people: A cross-sectional study. Sexual Health, 13(6), 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1071/sh16029
McDaniel, B. T., & Drouin, M. (2015). Sexting among married couples: Who is doing it, and are they more satisfied? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(11), 628–634. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0334
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 64–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64
Mori, C., Cooke, J. E., Temple, J. R., Ly, A., Lu, Y., Anderson, N., Rash, C., & Madigan, S. (2020). The prevalence of sexting behaviors among emerging adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 1103–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01656-4
Oriza, I. I. D., & Hanipraja, M. A. (2020). Sexting and sexual satisfaction on young adults in romantic relationship. Psychological Research on Urban Society, 3(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.7454/proust.v3i1.61
O’Sullivan, L. F., & Allgeier, E. R. (1998). Feigning sexual desire: Consenting to unwanted sexual activity in heterosexual dating relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 35(3), 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499809551938
Parker, T. S., Blackburn, K. M., Perry, M. S., & Hawks, J. M. (2013). Sexting as an intervention: Relationship satisfaction and motivation considerations. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.635134
Perkins, A. B., Becker, J. V., Tehee, M., & Mackelprang, E. (2014). Sexting behaviors among college students: Cause for concern? International Journal of Sexual Health, 26(2), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2013.841792
Pound, P., Langford, R., & Campbell, R. (2016). What do young people think about their school-based sex and relationship education? A qualitative synthesis of young people's views and experiences. BMJ Open, 6(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197141
Quinn-Nilas, C., Goncalves, M. K., Kennett, D. J., & Grant, A. (2018). A thematic analysis of men’s sexual compliance with unwanted, non-coercive sex. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(2), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000099
Reed, L. A., Boyer, M. P., Meskunas, H., Tolman, R. M., & Ward, L. M. (2020). How do adolescents experience sexting in dating relationships? Motivations to sext and responses to sexting requests from dating partners. Children and Youth Services Review, 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104696
Renfrow, D. G., & Rollo, E. A. (2014). Sexting on campus: Minimizing perceived risks and neutralizing behaviors. Deviant Behavior, 35(11), 903–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2014.897122
Ross, J. M., Drouin, M., & Coupe, A. (2019). Sexting coercion as a component of intimate partner polyvictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(11), 2269–2291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516660300
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). The University of Rochester Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Samimi, P., & Alderson, K. G. (2014). Sexting among undergraduate students. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.027
Schroder, K. E., Carey, M. P., & Vanable, P. A. (2003). Methodological challenges in research on sexual risk behavior: II. Accuracy of self-reports. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 26(2), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm2602_03
Stasko, E. C., & Geller, P. A. (2015). Reframing sexting as a positive relationship Behavior [Conference presentation]. American Psychological Association 2015, Toronto, Canada. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2015/08/reframing-sexting.pdf
Stasko, E. C. (2015). Sexting and intimate partner relationships among adults [Doctoral dissertation, Drexel University].
Tóth-Király, I., Vallerand, R. J., Bőthe, B., Rigó, A., & Orosz, G. (2019). Examining sexual motivation profiles and their correlates using latent profile analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 146, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PAID.2019.04.002
Van Ouytsel, J., Van Gool, E., Walrave, M., Ponnet, K., & Peeters, E. (2017). Sexting: Adolescents’ perceptions of the applications used for, motives for, and consequences of sexting. Journal of Youth Studies, 20(4), 446–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2016.1241865
Van Ouytsel, J., Walrave, M., & Ponnet, K. (2019). Sexting within adolescents’ romantic relationships: How is it related to perceptions of love and verbal conflict? Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.029
Vannier, S. A., & O’Sullivan, L. F. (2010). Sex without desire: Characteristics of occasions of sexual compliance in young adults’ committed relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 47(5), 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903132051
Walker, S., Sanci, L., & Temple-Smith, M. (2013). Sexting: Young women’s and men’s views on its nature and origins. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(6), 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.026
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1063
Weisskirch, R. S., & Delevi, R. (2011). “Sexting” and adult romantic attachment. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1697–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.008
Willis, M., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2022). Setting a bad precedent: Sexual compliance in undergraduate women’s sexually coercive relationships. Journal of American College Health, 70(1), 26–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1732988
Wood, J., Desmarais, S., Burleigh, T., & Milhausen, R. (2018). Reasons for sex and relational outcomes in consensually nonmonogamous and monogamous relationships: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(4), 632–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517743082
Funding
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors do not have any conflicts of interest or competing interests to declare.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Le, L., Goegan, L.D. & Daniels, L.M. The Impact of Autonomous and Controlled Sexting Motivations on Subjective Well-being and Relationship Quality. Arch Sex Behav 52, 243–254 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02361-0
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02361-0