Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Offspring Production Among the Relatives of Istmo Zapotec Men and Muxes

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Male androphilia (i.e., sexual attraction toward adult males) is influenced by biological factors, reliably occurs across diverse cultures, and has persisted over evolutionary time despite the fact that it reduces reproduction. One possible solution to this evolutionary paradox is the sexually antagonistic gene hypothesis (SAGH), which states that genes associated with male androphilia reduce reproduction when present in males but increase reproduction when present in their female relatives. The present study tested the SAGH among the Istmo Zapotec—a non-Euro-American culture in Oaxaca, Mexico, where transgender and cisgender androphilic males are known as muxe gunaa and muxe nguiiu, respectively. To test the SAGH, we compared offspring production by the biological relatives of muxe gunaa (n = 115), muxe nguiiu (n = 112), and gynephilic men (i.e., cisgender males who are sexually attracted to adult females; n = 171). The mothers and paternal aunts of muxe gunaa had higher offspring production than those of muxe nguiiu. Additionally, the relatives of muxe gunaa had more offspring than those of gynephilic men, whereas no such differences were found between the families of gynephilic men and muxe nguiiu. Elevated reproduction by the mothers and, particularly the aunts, of muxe gunaa is consistent with the SAGH. However, the absence of group differences between gynephilic men and muxe nguiiu, and the group differences between the two types of muxes are not predicted by the SAGH. This is the first study to demonstrate reproductive differences between kin of transgender and cisgender androphilic males within the same non-Euro-American culture.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. King et al. (2005) and Schwartz et al. (2010) reported elevated reproductive output by paternal aunts and uncles combined and, as such, it is not possible to isolate whether aunts, uncles, or both were responsible for this effect.

References

  • Abild, M. L., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2014). Does geographic proximity influence the expression of avuncular tendencies in Canadian androphilic males? Journal of Cognition and Culture,14, 41–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., … Sandnabba, N. K. (2010). Common genetic effects of gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins. Archives of Sexual Behavior,39, 81–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M. (2003). The man who would be queen: The science of gender-bending and transsexualism. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetics and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,78, 524–536.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Gaulin, S., Agyei, Y., & Gladue, B. A. (1994). Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,66, 1081–1093.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Pillard, R. C., Dawood, K., Miller, M. B., Farrer, L. A., Trivedi, S., & Murphy, R. L. (1999). A family history study of male sexual orientation using three independent samples. Behavior Genetics, 29, 79–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, N. W., & Zuk, M. (2009). Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution,24, 439–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, N. B., & Vasey, P. L. (2006). A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Samoan fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior,35, 559–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, D., You, T., Minano, M. R., Grieshop, K., Lind, M. I., Arnqvist, G., & Maklakov, A. A. (2016). Sexually antagonistic selection on genetic variation underlying both male and female same-sex sexual behavior. BMC Evolutionary Biology. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-016-0658-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Besharat, M. A., Karimi, S., & Saadati, M. (2016). A comparison of childhood gender nonconformity and fertility rate in a lineage in male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Contemporary Psychology,10, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (2012). Fertility in the mothers of firstborn homosexual and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior,41, 551–556.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (2018). Fraternal birth order, family size, and male homosexuality: Meta-analysis of studies spanning 25 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior,47, 1–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Clemmensen, L. H., & Steiner, B. W. (1987). Heterosexual and homosexual gender dysphoria. Archives of Sexual Behavior,16, 139–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., & Lippa, R. A. (2007). Birth order, sibling sex ratio, handedness, and sexual orientation of male and female participants in a BBC Internet research project. Archives of Sexual Behavior,36, 163–176.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobrow, B., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Is male homosexuality maintained via kin selection? Evolution and Human Behavior,22, 361–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, A. F., & Skorska, M. (2011). Sexual orientation, fraternal birth order, and the maternal immune hypothesis: A review. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology,32, 247–254.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, A. F., Skorska, M. N., Wang, C., Gabrie, J., MacNeil, A. J., Hoffarth, M. R., … Blanchard, R. (2018). Male homosexuality and maternal immune responsivity to the Y-linked protein NLGN4Y. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,115, 302–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bongaarts, J. (1982). The fertility-inhibiting effects of the intermediate fertility variables. Studies in Family Planning,13, 179–189.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bozkurt, A., Bozkurt, O. H., & Sonmez, I. (2015). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in a population with high fertility: Are Turkish male-to-female transsexuals different? Archives of Sexual Behavior,44, 1331–1337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camperio Ciani, A., Battaglia, U., & Liotta, M. (2016). Societal norms rather than sexual orientation influence kin altruism and avuncularity in tribal Urak-Lawoi, Italian, and Spanish adult males. Journal of Sex Research,53, 137–148.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camperio Ciani, A., Corna, F., & Capiluppi, C. (2004). Evidence for maternally inherited factors favoring male homosexuality and promoting female fecundity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences,271, 2217–2221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camperio Ciani, A., & Pellizzari, E. (2012). Fecundity of paternal and maternal non-parental female relatives of homosexual and heterosexual men. PLoS ONE,7, e51088. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051088.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso, F. L. (2005). Cultural universals and differences in male homosexuality: The case of a Brazilian fishing village. Archives of Sexual Behavior,34, 103–109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso, F. L. (2009). Recalled sex-typed behavior in childhood and sports’ preferences in adulthood of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual men from Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior,38, 726–736.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Central Intelligence Agency. (2018). The world factbook: Country comparison: Birth rate. Retrieved December 19, 2019 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/356rank.html#RQ.

  • Chivers, M. L., Seto, M. C., & Blanchard, R. (2007). Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to activities versus gender of actors in sexual films. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,93, 1108–1121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social. (2017). CONEVAL informa la evolución de la pobreza 2010-2016. Retrieved December 19, 2019 from https://www.coneval.org.mx/SalaPrensa/Comunicadosprensa/Documents/Comunicado-09-Medicion-pobreza-2016.pdf.

  • Consejo Nacional de Población. (2019). Cuadernillos estatales de las proyecciones de la población de México y de las entidades federativas, 2016–2050. Retrieved December 19, 2019 from https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/63977/Documento_Metodologico_Proyecciones_Mexico_2010_2050.pdf.

  • Crompton, L. (2003). Homosexuality and civilization. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danver, S. L. (2013). Native peoples of the world: An encyclopedia of groups, cultures, and contemporary issues. Armonk, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deakin, T. (1965). Evidence for homosexuality in ancient Egypt. International Journal of Greek Love,1, 31–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dribe, M., Hacker, J. D., & Scalone, F. (2014). The impact of socio-economic status on net fertility during the historical fertility decline: A comparative analysis of Canada, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and the USA. Population Studies,68, 135–149.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Forrester, D. L., VanderLaan, D. P., Parker, J. L., & Vasey, P. L. (2011). Male sexual orientation and avuncularity in Canada: Implications for the kin selection hypothesis. Journal of Cognition and Culture,11, 339–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry, J. D. (2010). The genomic location of sexually antagonistic variation: Some cautionary comments. Evolution,64, 1510–1516.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ganna, A., Verweij, K. J., Nivard, M. G., Maier, R., Wedow, R., Busch, A. S., … Lundström, S. (2019). Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science,365, eaat7693.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender? The Williams Institute. Retrieved August 29, 2019 from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/09h684x2.

  • Gavrilets, S., & Rice, W. R. (2006). Genetic models of homosexuality: Generating testable predictions. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273, 3031–3038.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J. R., Chippindale, A. K., & Rice, W. R. (2002). The X chromosome is a hot spot for sexually antagonistic fitness variation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences,269, 499–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gómez Jiménez, F. R., Court, L., & Vasey, P. L. (2019). A retrospective study of childhood sex-typed behavior in Istmo Zapotec men, women, and muxes. Archives of Sexual Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01544-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez, F. R., Semenyna, S. W., Court, L., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Recalled separation anxiety in childhood in Istmo Zapotec men, women, and muxes. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 109–117.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez, F. R., Semenyna, S. W., Court, L., & Vasey, P. L. (2018). Familial patterning and prevalence of male androphilia among Istmo Zapotec men and muxes. PLoS ONE,13(2), e0192683.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Gil, E., Esteva, I., Almaraz, M. C., Pasaro, E., Segovia, S., & Guillamon, A. (2010). Familiality of gender identity disorder in non-twin siblings. Archives of Sexual Behavior,39, 546–552.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • González-Álvarez, J. (2017). Perception of sexual orientation from facial structure: A study with artificial face models. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 1251–1260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grammer, K., & Thornhill, R. (1994). Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology,108, 233–242.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamer, D. H. (2002). Genetics of sexual behavior. In J. Benjamin, R. P. Ebstein, & R. H. Belmaker (Eds.), Molecular genetics and the human personality (pp. 257–272). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N., & Pattatucci, A. M. L. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science,261, 321–327.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hames, R., Garfield, Z. H., & Garfield, M. J. (2017). Is male androphilia a context dependent cross-cultural universal? Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 63–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J. (1985). Defeminization and social class. Archives of Sexual Behavior,14, 1–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, D. V. (1968). Homosexuality and transvestism in the Philippines: the Cebuan Filipino bayot and lakin-on. Behavior Science Notes,3, 211–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, T. B. (1986). How does religion influence fertility?: The case of Mormons. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,25, 248–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoskins, J. L., Ritchie, M. G., & Bailey, N. W. (2015). A test of genetic models for the evolutionary maintenance of same-sex sexual behaviour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,282(1809), 20150429. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0429.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, K. J., Rosenthal, A. M., Miller, D. I., & Bailey, J. M. (2016). Who are gynandromorphophilic men? Characterizing men with sexual interest in transgender women. Psychological Medicine,46, 819–827.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iemmola, F., & Camperio Ciani, A. (2009). New evidence of genetic factors influencing sexual orientation in men: Female fecundity increase in the maternal line. Archives of Sexual Behavior,38, 393–399.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. (2009). Perfil sociodemográfico de la población que habla lengua indígena. Retrieved December 19, 2019 from http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/leng_indi/PHLI.pdf.

  • Irons, W. (1998). Adaptively relevant environments versus the environment of evolutionary adaptiveness. Evolutionary Anthropology,6, 194–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasienska, G., Lipson, S. F., Ellison, P. T., Thune, I., & Ziomkiewicz, A. (2006). Symmetrical women have higher potential fertility. Evolution and Human Behavior,27, 390–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jokela, M. (2009). Physical attractiveness and reproductive success in humans: Evidence from the late 20th century United States. Evolution and Human Behavior,30, 342–350.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M., Gilman, S. E., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Sexual orientation in a US national sample of twin and nontwin sibling pairs. American Journal of Psychiatry,157, 1843–1846.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khovanova, T. (2019). On the mathematics of the fraternal birth order effect and the genetics of homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01573-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, M. D., Green, J., Osborn, D. P., Arkell, J., Hetherton, J., & Pereira, E. (2005). Family size in white gay and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior,34, 117–122.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Långström, N., Rahman, Q., Calström, E., & Lichtenstein, P. (2010). Genetic and environmental effects on same sex-sexual behavior: A population study of twins in Sweden. Archives of Sexual Behavior,39, 75–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, A. A., Latty, E. M., Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2005). Measurement of sexual arousal in postoperative male-to-female transsexuals using vaginal photoplethysmography. Archives of Sexual Behavior,34, 135–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leser, H. (1961). The Hirschfeld Institute for Sexology. In A. Ellis & A. Abarnel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of sexual behavior (pp. 967–970). New York: Hawthorn Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2000). Gender-related traits in gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual men and women: The virtual identity of homosexual-heterosexual diagnosticity and gender diagnosticity. Journal of Personality,68, 899–926.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2002). Gender-related traits of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior,31, 83–98.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2005). Sexual orientation and personality. Annual Review of Sex Research,16, 119–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2008). Sex and sexual orientation differences in personality: Findings from the BBC internet survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior,37, 173–187.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2009). Sex differences in sex drive, sociosexuality, and height across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social structural theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior,38, 631–651.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, A. C. (2014). Facial attractiveness. Cognitive Science,5, 621–634.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacFarlane, D. F. (1984). Transsexual prostitution in New Zealand: Predominance of persons of Maori extraction. Archives of Sexual Behavior,13, 301–309.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miano Borruso, M. (2002). Hombre, mujer y muxe’ en el Istmo de Tehuantepec. México D. F., México: Plaza y Valdés.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E. M. (2000). Homosexuality, birth order, and evolution: Toward an equilibrium reproductive economics of homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 1–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirandé, A. (2017). Behind the mask: Gender hybridity in a Zapotec community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulder, M. B. (1989). Early maturing Kipsigis women have higher reproductive success than late maturing women and cost more to marry. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology,24, 145–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, S. O. (2000). Homosexualities. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustanski, B. S., Dupree, M. G., Nievergelt, C. M., Bocklandt, S., Schork, N. J., & Hamer, D. H. (2005). A genomewide scan of male sexual orientation. Human Genetics,116, 272–278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakagawa, S. (2004). A farewell to Bonferroni: The problems of low statistical power and publication bias. Behavioral Ecology, 15, 1044–1045.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nila, S., Barthes, J., Crochet, P. A., Suryobroto, B., & Raymond, M. (2018). Kin selection and male homosexual preference in Indonesia. Archives of Sexual Behavior,47, 2455–2465.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perrett, D. I., Burt, D. M., Penton-Voak, I. S., Lee, K. J., Rowland, D. A., & Edwards, R. (1999). Symmetry and human facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior,20, 295–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2015). Viewing time measures of sexual orientation in Samoan cisgender men who engage in sexual interactions with fa’afafine. PLoS ONE,10(2), e0116529.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). Reconsidering male bisexuality: Sexual activity role and sexual attraction in Samoan men who engage in sexual interactions with fa’afafine. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity,3, 11–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2018). Viewing time and self-report measures of sexual attraction in Samoan cisgender and transgender androphilic males. Archives of Sexual Behavior,47, 2427–2434.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, L. J., Wrightson, C., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Recalled gendered behavior in childhood: A comparison of androphilic men, gynephilic men, and androphilic women in Japan. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 119–127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pflüger, L. S., Oberzaucher, E., Katina, S., Holzleitner, I. J., & Grammer, K. (2012). Cues to fertility: Perceived attractiveness and facial shape predict reproductive success. Evolution and Human Behavior,33, 708–714.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prieur, A. (1998). Mema’s house, Mexico City: On transvestites, queens, and machos. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, Q., Collins, A., Morrison, M., Orrells, J. C., Cadinouche, K., Greenfield, S., & Begum, S. (2008). Maternal inheritance and familial fecundity factors in male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior,37, 962–969.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, Q., & Hull, M. S. (2005). An empirical test of the kin selection hypothesis for male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior,34, 461–467.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, Q., Xu, Y., Lippa, R., & Vasey, P. L. (2019). Prevalence of sexual orientation across 28 nations and its association with gender equality, economic development, and individualism. Archives of Sexual Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01590-0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Blanchard, R., Schwartz, G., Bailey, J. M., & Sanders, A. R. (2012). Further data concerning Blanchard’s (2012) “Fertility in the mothers of firstborn homosexual and heterosexual men” [Letter to the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior,41, 529–531.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, A. R., Martin, E. R., Beecham, G. W., Guo, S., Dawood, K., Rieger, G., … Bailey, J. M. (2015). Genome-wide scan demonstrates significant linkage for male sexual orientation. Psychological Medicine,45, 1379–1388.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, D. P., Wilcox, A. J., & Horney, L. F. (1984). Age at menarche and subsequent reproductive events. American Journal of Epidemiology,119, 765–774.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,28, 247–275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P., & Fuller, R. C. (2015). On the varieties of sexual experience: Cross-cultural links between religiosity and human mating strategies. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,7, 314–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, G., Kim, R. M., Kolundzija, A. B., Rieger, G., & Sanders, A. R. (2010). Biodemographic and physical correlates of sexual orientation in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior,39, 93–109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semenyna, S. W., Petterson, L. J., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017a). A comparison of the reproductive output among the relatives of Samoan androphilic fa’afafine and gynephilic men. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 87–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semenyna, S. W., VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2017b). Familial patterning and prevalence of male androphilia in Samoa. Journal of Sex Research,54, 1077–1084.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semenyna, S. W., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017c). Birth order and recalled childhood gender nonconformity in Samoan men and fa’afafine. Developmental Psychobiology,59, 338–347.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). The relationship between adult occupational preferences and childhood gender nonconformity among Samoan women, men, and fa’afafine. Human Nature,27, 283–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J. A., & Gangestad, S. W. (1991). Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,60, 870–883.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (2012). A follow-up study of boys with gender identity disorder. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.

  • Skirbekk, V. (2008). Fertility trends by social status. Demographic Research,18, 145–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skorska, M. N., Blanchard, R., VanderLaan, D. P., Zucker, K. J., & Bogaert, A. F. (2017). Gay male only-children: Evidence for low birth weight and high maternal miscarriage rates. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 205–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skorska, M. N., Geniole, S. N., Vrysen, B. M., McCormick, C. M., & Bogaert, A. F. (2015). Facial structure predicts sexual orientation in both men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior,44, 1377–1394.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stief, M. (2017). The sexual orientation and gender presentation of hijra, kothi, and panthi in Mumbai, India. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 73–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweet, M., & Zwilling, L. (1993). The first medicalization: The taxonomy and etiology of queerness in classical Indian medicine. Journal of the History of Sexuality,3, 590–697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Székely, M. (2005). Pobreza y desigualdad en México entre 1950 y 2004. El Trimestre Económico,72, 913–931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, T. (1996). The prehistory of sex: Four million years of human sexual culture. New York, NY: Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderlaan, D. P., Blanchard, R., Zucker, K. J., Massuda, R., Fontanari, A. M. V., Borba, A. O., … Schwarz, K. (2017a). Birth order and androphilic male-to-female transsexualism in Brazil. Journal of Biosocial Science,49, 527–535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Forrester, D. L., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Offspring production among the extended relatives of Samoan men and fa’afafine. PLoS ONE,7(4), e36088. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036088.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Forrester, D. L., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2013a). The prevalence of fa’afafine relatives among Samoan gynephilic men and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior,42, 353–359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Gothreau, L. M., Bartlett, N. H., & Vasey, P. L. (2011). Recalled separation anxiety and gender atypicality in childhood: A study of Canadian heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior,40, 1233–1240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2017b). Elevated kin-directed altruism emerges in childhood and is linked to feminine gender expression in Samoan fa’afafine: A retrospective study. Archives of Sexual Behavior,46, 95–108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2011). Male sexual orientation in independent Samoa: Evidence for fraternal birth order and maternal fecundity effects. Archives of Sexual Behavior,40, 495–503.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Relationship status and elevated avuncularity in Samoan fa’afafine. Personal Relationships,19, 326–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Vokey, J. R., & Vasey, P. L. (2013b). Is transgendered male androphilia familial in non-Western populations? The case of a Samoan village. Archives of Sexual Behavior,42, 361–370.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & Bartlett, N. H. (2007). What can the Samoan fa’afafine teach us about the Western concept of “Gender identity disorder in childhood”? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,50, 481–490.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., Parker, J. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2014). Comparative reproductive output of androphilic and gynephilic males in Samoa. Archives of Sexual Behavior,43, 363–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., Pocock, D. S., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2007). Kin selection and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Evolution and Human Behavior,28, 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2007). Birth order and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,274, 1437–1442.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2009). Materteral and avuncular tendencies in Samoa: A comparative study of women, men, and fa’afafine. Human Nature,20, 269–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010a). An adaptive cognitive dissociation between willingness to help kin and non-kin in Samoan fa’afafine. Psychological Science,21, 292–297.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010b). Avuncular tendencies in Samoan fa’afafine and the evolution of male androphilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior,39, 821–830.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010c). Monetary exchanges with nieces and nephews: A comparison of Samoan men, women, and fa’afafine. Evolution and Human Behavior,31, 373–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2012). Sexual orientation in men and avuncularity in Japan: Implications for the kin selection hypothesis. Archives of Sexual Behavior,41, 209–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2014). Evolving research on the evolution of male androphilia. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality,23, 137–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, P. L., VanderLaan, D. P., Gothreau, L. M., & Bartlett, N. H. (2011). Traits of separation anxiety in childhood: A retrospective study of Samoan men, women, and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior,40, 511–517.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitam, F. L. (1980). Childhood predictors of adult homosexuality. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy,6, 11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitam, F. L., & Mathy, R. M. (1986). Male homosexuality in four societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines, and the United States. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y., & Zheng, Y. (2017). Fraternal birth order, handedness, and sexual orientation in a Chinese population. Journal of Sex Research,54, 10–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. (2008). Religious affiliation, religiosity, and male and female fertility. Demographic Research,18, 233–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, L., Lippa, R. A., & Zheng, Y. (2011). Sex and sexual orientation differences in personality in China. Archives of Sexual Behavior,40, 533–541.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, L., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Sex and sexual orientation differences in empathizing-systemizing cognitive styles in China. Personality and Individual Differences,87, 267–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zietsch, B. P., Morley, K. I., Shekar, S. N., Verweij, K. J., Keller, M. C., Macgregor, S., … Martin, N. G. (2008). Genetic factors predisposing to homosexuality may increase mating success in heterosexuals. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 424–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Blanchard, R., Kim, T. S., Pae, C. U., & Lee, C. (2007). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual transsexual South Korean men: Effects of the male-preference stopping rule. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience,61, 529–553.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dan Weeks, Julio Cesar Jiménez Rodríguez, Lucas Court, Mario Alberto Mejía López, and Felina Santiago, without whom this research would not be possible.

Funding

This study was funded by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grant (institutional grant number RGPIN-2015-04389) awarded to Paul L. Vasey, and a Sigma Xi Grants-in-Aid of Research (Grant Number G2017031591840826) awarded to Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada

    Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez, Scott W. Semenyna & Paul L. Vasey

Authors
  1. Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Scott W. Semenyna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Paul L. Vasey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. An institutional human subject research ethics committee reviewed and approved this research.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gómez Jiménez, F.R., Semenyna, S.W. & Vasey, P.L. Offspring Production Among the Relatives of Istmo Zapotec Men and Muxes. Arch Sex Behav 49, 581–594 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01611-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01611-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation