Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Roles of Self-Socialization and Parent Socialization in Toddlers’ Gender-Typed Appearance

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Children’s gender-stereotypical dress and appearance might be one of the first representations of children’s emerging sense of gender identity. Gender self-socialization theories posit that as children become more aware of gender categories, they become motivated to adhere to gender stereotypes, such as by expressing interest in dressing in feminine or masculine ways. Socialization theories predict that children’s gender-typed appearance reflects parents’ choices. For example, gender-traditional parents might dress their children in gender-stereotypical ways. At the same time, dressing in gender-stereotypical ways might contribute to children’s growing awareness of gender categories. The current study investigated the factors associated with gender-typed appearance among 175 (87 girls, 88 boys) Mexican American, Dominican American, and African American 2-year-olds. We examined both child and parent contributions to early gender-typed appearance. To measure children’s early conceptual understanding of gender categories, we assessed children’s use and recognition of gender verbal labels. To examine the influence of parent socialization, we assessed mothers’ gender-role attitudes. Children’s gender-typed appearance was observed and coded during an assessment. Surprisingly, mothers’ gender-role attitudes were not significantly associated with toddlers’ gender-typed appearance. However, toddlers’ gender labeling was associated with their gender-typed appearance, suggesting that self-socialization processes can be found as early as 24 months of age.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, M., Coltrane, S., & Parke, R. D. (2007). Cross-ethnic applicability of the gender-based attitudes toward marriage and child rearing scales. Sex Roles, 56, 325–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arredondo, M., Walsh, A., Baeg, S. A., Halim, M. L., Ruble, D. N., Ng, F. F., Kwak, K., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2014, April). Gender appearance rigidity in American and Asian 4-year-olds. Poster presented at the Western Psychological Association Convention, Portland, OR.

  • Bartlett, K. T. (1994). Only girls wear barrettes: Dress and appearance standards, community norms, and workplace equality. Michigan Law Review, 92, 2541–2582. https://doi.org/10.2307/1290002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00496.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., & Lewis, M. (1979). “Why mama and papa?” The development of social labels. Child Development, 50, 1203–1206. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill, S. E. (1989). Fashioning males and females: Appearance management and the social reproduction of gender. Symbolic Interaction, 12, 281–298. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.1989.12.2.281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, P. R., Yunger, J. L., & Perry, D. G. (2003). Gender identity and adjustment in middle childhood. Sex Roles, 49, 95–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dozier, R. (2005). Beards, breasts, and bodies: Doing sex in a gendered world. Gender & Society, 19, 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204272153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Etaugh, C., Grinnell, K., & Etaugh, A. (1989). Development of gender labeling: Effect of age of pictured children. Sex Roles, 21, 769–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1989). The young child’s gender schema: Environmental input, internal organization. Child Development, 60, 663–672. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1993). Gender role development in young children: From discrimination to labeling. Developmental Review, 13, 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.1993.1009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1995). Gender knowledge in egalitarian and traditional families. Sex Roles, 32, 513–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. I., Leinbach, M. D., & Hagan, R. (1986). Gender labeling and the adoption of sex-typed behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 22, 440–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.4.440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, R. A., Mataro, L., & Burroughs, W. J. (1992). Clothing and social identity. Clothing & Textiles Research Journal, 11, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X9201100103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., & Bates, E. (2006). The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories user’s guide and technical manual. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, V. (2008). Into the closet: Cross-dressing and the gendered body in children’s literature and film. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitas, A., Kaiser, S., Chandler, J. D., Hall, C. D., Kim, J. W., & Hammidi, T. (1997). Appearance management as border construction: Least favorite clothing, group distancing, and identity not! Sociological Inquiry, 67, 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1997.tb01099.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freitas, A., Kaiser, S., & Hammidi, T. (1996). Communities, commodities, cultural space, and style. Journal of Homosexuality, 31, 83–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fridell, S. R., Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Maing, D. M. (1996). Physical attractiveness of girls with gender identity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02437905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, S. A., Taylor, M. G., & Nguyen, S. P. (2004). Mother-child conversations about gender. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69, 1–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2004.06901002.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halim, M. L., & Lindner, N. (2013). Gender self-socialization in early childhood. In R. E. Tremblay, M. Boivin, & R. D. Peters (Eds.), Encyclopedia on early childhood development, 1-6. Montreal, PQ: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Childhood Development. Retrieved July 1, 2018, from http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/Halim-LindnerANGxp1.pdf.

  • Halim, M. L., Ruble, D., Tamis-LeMonda, C., & Shrout, P. E. (2013a). Rigidity in gender-typed behaviors in early childhood: A longitudinal study of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 84, 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12057.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Halim, M. L., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Shrout, P. E. (2013b, April). Children’s cognitions about gender and consequences for gender-typed behavior. Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial Meeting, Seattle, WA.

  • Halim, M. L., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Zosuls, K. M., Lurye, L. E., & Greulich, F. K. (2014). The case of the pink frilly dress and the avoidance of all things “girly”: Children’s appearance rigidity and cognitive theories of gender development. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1091–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034906.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halim, M. L., Zosuls, K. M., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Baeg, A. S., Walsh, A. S., & Moy, K. H. (2016). Children’s dynamic gender identities across development and the influence of cognition, context, and culture. In C. S. Tamis-LeMonda & L. Balter (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (3rd ed., pp. 193–218). New York, NY: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. W., & Kloska, D. D. (1995). Parents’ gender-based attitudes toward marital roles and child rearing: Development and validation of new measures. Sex Roles, 32, 273–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutson, D. J. (2010). Standing out/fitting in: Identity, appearance, and authenticity in gay and lesbian communities. Symbolic Interaction, 33, 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2010.33.2.213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson-Maldonado, D., Thal, D., Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Newton, T., & Conboy, B. (2003). MacArthur Inventarios del Desarrolo de Habilidades Comunicativas: User’s guide and technical manual. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, P. A., & Kofkin, J. A. (1997). Race, gender, and young children. In S. S. Luthar, J. A. Burack, D. Cicchetti, & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, risk, and disorder (pp. 51–74). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. A. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children’s sex role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lam, C. B., McHale, S. M., & Updegraff, K. A. (2012). Gender dynamics in Mexican American families: Connecting mothers’, fathers’, and youths’ experiences. Sex Roles, 67, 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0137-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., & Szkrybalo, J. (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 903–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason-Schrock, D. (1996). Transsexuals’ narrative construction of the “true self”. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59, 176–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDermid, S. A., Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Maing, D. M. (1998). Effects of physical appearance on masculine trait ratings of boys and girls with gender identity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018650401386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pakizegi, B. (1985). Gender classification in infants. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 146, 135–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1985.9923457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poulin-Dubois, D., Serbin, L. A., & Derbyshire, A. (1998). Toddlers’ intermodal and verbal knowledge about gender. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44, 338–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, P. C., Yahr, J., Kuhn, A., Slater, A. M., & Pascalis, O. (2002). Representation of the gender of human faces by infants: A preference for female. Perception, 31, 1109–1121. https://doi.org/10.1068/p3331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., Martin, C., & Berenbaum, S. (2006). Gender development. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 858–932). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shakin, M., Shakin, D., & Sternglanz, S. H. (1985). Infant clothing: Sex labeling for strangers. Sex Roles, 12, 955–964. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288097.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, O. D., & McHale, S. M. (2017). The development and correlates of gender role orientations in African-American youth. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slaby, R. G., & Frey, K. S. (1975). Development of gender constancy and selective attention to same-sex models. Child Development, 52, 849–856. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith Leavell, A., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Ruble, D. N., Zosuls, K. M., & Cabrera, N. J. (2012). African American, White and Latino fathers’ activities with their sons and daughters in early childhood. Sex Roles, 66, 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0080-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). Social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2002). Are parents’ gender schemas related to their children’s gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 28, 615–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S. K. (1975). Gender labels and early sex role development. Child Development, 46, 339–347. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Updegraff, K. A., McHale, S. M., Zeiders, K. H., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Perez-Brena, N. J., Wheeler, L. A., & De Jesús, S. A. R. (2014). Mexican American adolescents’ gender role attitude development: The role of adolescents’ gender and nativity and parents’ gender role attitudes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 2041–2053.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (May 17, 2012). Most children younger than age 1 are minorities. Newsroom. Retrieved July 1, 2018 from http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.html.

  • VanderLaan, D. P., Postema, L., Wood, H., Singh, D., Fantus, S., Hyun, J., … Zucker, K. J. (2015). Do children with gender dysphoria have intense/obsessional interests? Journal of Sex Research, 52, 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.860073.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waxman, S. R., & Grace, A. D. (2017). Developing gender- and race-based categories in infants: Evidence from 7- and 11-month-olds. In G. Hayes & M. Bryant (Eds.), Psychology of culture (pp. 159–175). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinraub, M., Clemens, L. P., Sockloff, A., Ethridge, T., Gracely, E., & Myers, B. (1984). The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: Relationships to gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics. Child Development, 55, 1493–1503. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, W. I., & Hines, M. (2015a). Effects of gender color-coding on toddlers’ gender-typical toy play. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1233–1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0400-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, W. I., & Hines, M. (2015b). Preferences for pink and blue: The development of color preferences as a distinct gender-typed behavior in toddlers. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0489-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zosuls, K. M., Ruble, D. N., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2014). Self-socialization of gender in African American, Dominican immigrant, and Mexican immigrant toddlers. Child Development, 85, 2202–2217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zosuls, K. M., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Shrout, P. E., Bornstein, M. H., & Greulich, F. K. (2009). The acquisition of gender labels in infancy: Implications for gender-typed play. Developmental Psychology, 45, 688–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014053.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Wild, J., Bradley, S. J., & Lowry, C. B. (1993). Physical attractiveness of boys with gender identity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01552910.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Yoannidis, T., & Abramovitch, R. (2001). The relation between gender labeling and gender constancy in preschool children. Scandinavian Journal of Sexology, 4, 107–114.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was conducted at New York University’s Center for Research on Culture, Development, and Education (CRCDE), within the Department of Applied Psychology at New York University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation grants BCS 021859 and IRADS 0721383 to C. S. Tamis-LeMonda. Preparation of this paper was also supported in part by a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Research Grant (R01 HD04994 and ARRA Supplement) to D. N. Ruble. We thank Cristina Hunter, Cyndy Karras, Yana Kuchirko, Skay Lahav, Alana Paz, and Julia Raufman for their research assistance, our colleagues and staff at the CRCDE, as well as the mothers and children who participated in our research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA, 90840-0901, USA

    May Ling D. Halim

  2. Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

    Abigail S. Walsh

  3. Department of Applied Psychology, Steinhardt School of Education, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda

  4. The Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

    Kristina M. Zosuls

  5. Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Diane N. Ruble

Authors
  1. May Ling D. Halim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abigail S. Walsh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristina M. Zosuls
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Diane N. Ruble
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to May Ling D. Halim.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Halim, M.L.D., Walsh, A.S., Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. et al. The Roles of Self-Socialization and Parent Socialization in Toddlers’ Gender-Typed Appearance. Arch Sex Behav 47, 2277–2285 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1263-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1263-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation