Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Gay Male Sexual Difficulties Scale

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Sexual difficulties (i.e., disturbances in normal sexual responding) have the potential to significantly and negatively affect men’s social and psychological well-being. However, a review of published measurement tools indicates that most have limited applicability to gay men, and none offer a nuanced understanding of sexual difficulties, as experienced by members of this population. To address this omission, the Gay Male Sexual Difficulties Scale (GMSDS) was developed using a sequential mixed-methods approach. The 25-item GMSDS uses a 6-point frequency Likert-type response format and examines: difficulties with receptive and insertive anal intercourse (5 items each); erectile difficulties (4 items); foreskin difficulties (4 items); body embarrassment (4 items); and seminal fluid concerns (3 items). The measure’s scale score dimensionality, assessed using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, as well as scale score reliability and validity (e.g., known-groups and convergent) was tested and deemed to be satisfactory. Limitations of the current series of studies and directions for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. It should be noted a small minority of participants reported heightened sexual interest and arousal when depressed or anxious (see Bancroft et al., 2003).

  2. Sullivan and D’Agostino (1992) suggest that independent samples t tests are robust when used with data that contain unequal sample sizes and may be subject to floor effects.

  3. Each observed variable (i.e., each item) has an associated error. The addition of a covariance (i.e., a covarying path) allows the error associated with one item to correlate with the error associated with another item. This does not alter how the items are scored. It is a common structural equation modeling method used when two items measure related constructs and are not deemed redundant, and when the removal of an item results in a worse model fit (Byrne, 2010).

References

  • Allison, P. D. (2001). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Althof, S. E. (2002). Quality of life and erectile dysfunction. Urology, 59(6), 803–810. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01606-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Fourth ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amr, M., El Gilany, A. H., & El-Hawary, A. (2008). Does gender predict medical students’ stress in Mansoura, Egypt? Medical Education Online, 13(12), 1–8. doi:10.3885/meo.2008.Res00273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angst, J. (1998). Sexual problems in healthy and depressed persons. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13(Suppl. 6), S1–S4. doi:10.1097/00004850-199807006-00001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Araujo, A. B., Durante, R., Feldman, H. A., Goldstein, I., & McKinlay, J. B. (1998). The relationship between depressive symptoms and male erectile dysfunction: Cross-sectional results from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(4), 458–465. doi:10.1093/aje/152.6.533.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bancroft, J., Carnes, L., Janssen, E., Goodrich, D., & Long, J. S. (2005). Erectile and ejaculatory problems in gay and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(3), 285–297. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-3117-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bancroft, J., Janssen, E., Strong, D., Carnes, L., Vukadinovic, Z., & Long, J. S. (2003). Sexual risk-taking in gay men: The relevance of sexual arousability, mood, and sensation seeking. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32(6), 555–572. doi:10.1023/A:1026041628364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H. (1986). Causes of sexual dysfunction: The role of anxiety and cognitive interference. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(2), 140–148. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.54.2.140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, C. J., Kiss, M., Morrison, T. G., Rushe, D. M., & Specht, J. (2014). The association between gay men’s stereotypic beliefs about drag queens and their endorsement of hypermasculinity. Journal of Homosexuality, 61(4), 554–567.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjelland, I., Dahl, A. A., Haug, T. T., & Neckelmann, D. (2002). The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale: An updated literature review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52(2), 69–78. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(01)00296-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker, S. J., & Johnson, J. A. (2008). ‘Pack a more powerful punch’ and ‘lay the pipe’: Erectile enhancement discourse as a body project for masculinity. Journal of Gender Studies, 17(2), 131–146. doi:10.1080/09589230802008899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burk, L. R., Burkhart, B. R., & Sikorski, J. F. (2004). Construction and preliminary validation of the Auburn Differential Masculinity Inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5(1), 4–17. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.5.1.4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2002). Model selection and multi-model inference: A practical information-theoretic approach (2nd ed.). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, T., & Whiteley, C. (2006). Working clinically with gay men with sexual performance problems. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 21(4), 419–428. doi:10.1080/14681990600597776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, W. L., Flanagan, N. B., Spellman, M., & Cohen, M. E. (1957). Clinical observations in manic-depressive disease: A quantitative study of one hundred manic-depressive patients and fifty medically sick controls. Journal of the American Medical Association, 164(14), 1535–1546. doi:10.1001/jama.1957.02980140011003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. doi:10.2307/2136404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. M. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The social psychology of health (pp. 123–128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T., Fagan, P. J., Piedmont, R. L., Ponticas, Y., & Wise, T. N. (1992). The five-factor model of personality and sexual functioning in outpatient men and women. Psychiatric Medicine, 10(2), 199–215. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1615160.

  • Costello, A. B., & Osborne J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9. Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/.

  • Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science and Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cove, J., & Boyle, M. (2002). Gay men’s self-defined sexual problems, perceived causes and factors in remission. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 17(2), 137–147. doi:10.1080/14681990220121257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302. doi:10.1037/h0040957.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damon, W., & Rosser, S. B. R. (2005). Anodyspareunia in men who have sex with men: Prevalence, predictors, consequences and the development of DSM diagnostic criteria. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 31(2), 129–141. doi:10.1080/00926230590477989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale development: Theory and applications (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dove, N. L., & Wiederman, M. W. (2000). Cognitive distraction and women’s sexual functioning. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 26(1), 67–78. doi:10.1080/009262300278650.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenbach, G., & Wyatt, J. (2002). Using the Internet for surveys and health research. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 4(2), e13. doi:10.2196/jmir.4.2.e13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272–299. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fergus, K. D., Gray, R. E., & Fitch, M. I. (2002). Sexual dysfunction and the preservation of manhood: Experiences of men with prostate cancer. Journal of Health Psychology, 7(3), 303–316. doi:10.1177/1359105302007003223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furr, R. M., & Bacharach, V. R. (2008). Psychometrics: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gil, S. (2007). Body image, well-being and sexual satisfaction: A comparison between heterosexual and gay men. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 22(2), 237–244. doi:10.1080/14681990600855042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, H. (1976). The hazards of being male: Surviving the myth of masculine privilege. New York: Signet Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Good, G. E., Heppner, P. P., DeBord, K. A., & Fischer, A. R. (2004). Understanding men’s psychological distress: Contributions of problem-solving appraisal and masculine role conflict. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5(2), 168–177. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59(2), 93–104. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 549–576. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, J., Chin, J., & Ficarrotto, T. (1992). Warning: Masculinity may be dangerous to your health. In M. S. Kimmel & M. A. Messner (Eds.), Men’s lives (pp. 271–285). New York: Macmillan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayton, J. C., Allen, D. G., & Scarpello, V. (2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 191–205. doi:10.1177/1094428104263675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshfield, S., Chiasson, M. A., Wagmiller, R. L, Jr., Remien, R. H., Humberstone, M., Scheinmann, R., & Grov, C. (2010). Sexual dysfunction in an internet sample of U.S. men who have sex with men. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7(9), 3104–3114. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01636.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Johns, M. M., Pingel, E., Eisenberg, A., Santana, M. L., & Bauermeister, J. (2012). Butch tops and femme bottoms? Sexual positioning, sexual decision making, and gender roles among young gay men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 6(6), 505–518. doi:10.1177/1557988312455214.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, S. H., Dickens, S. E., Eisfeld, B. S., & Bagby, R. M. (1999). Sexual dysfunction before antidepressant therapy in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 56(2), 201–208. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00050-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kippax, S., & Smith, G. (2001). Anal intercourse and power in sex between men. Sexualities, 4(4), 413–434. doi:10.1177/136346001004004002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraut, R., Olson, J., Banaji, M., Bruckman, A., Cohen, J., & Couper, M. (2004). Psychological research online: Report of Board of Scientific Affairs’ Advisory Group on the Conduct of Research on the Internet. American Psychologist, 59(2), 105–117. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. T. F., Kim, J. H., & Tsui, H. Y. (2005). Prevalence of male and female sexual problems, perceptions related to sex and association with quality of life in a Chinese population: A population-based study. International Journal of Impotence Research, 17(6), 494–505. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)64302-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Das, A., & Waite, L. J. (2008). Sexual dysfunction among older adults: Prevalence and risk factors from a nationally representative US probability sample of men and women 57-85 years of age. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5(10), 2300–2311. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00974.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Nicolosi, A., Glasser, D. B., Paik, A., Gingell, C., Moreira, E., & Wang, T. (2004). Sexual problems among women and men aged 40-80 y: Prevalence and correlates identified in the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. International Journal of Impotence Research, 17(1), 39–57. doi:10.1038/sj.ijir.3901250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Paik, A., Glasser, D. B., Kang, J. H., Wang, T., Levinson, B., & Gingell, C. (2006). A cross-national study of subjective sexual well-being among older women and men: Findings from the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(2), 143–159. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-9005-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Paik, A., & Rosen, R. C. (1999). Sexual dysfunction in the United States: Prevalence and predictors. Journal of the American Medical Association, 281(6), 537–544. doi:10.1001/jama.281.6.537.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(1), 90–93. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(200101)29:1<90:AID-EAT15>3.0.CO;2-F.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, M. J., & Vichesky, D. R. (2006). Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men. Body Image, 3(1), 45–55. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.10.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lick, D. J., & Johnson, K. L. (2015). Intersecting race and gender cues are associated with perceptions of gay men’s preferred sexual roles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(5), 1471–1481. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0472-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202. doi:10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W. M., Rochlen, A., & Mohr, J. J. (2005). Real and ideal gender-role conflict: Exploring psychological distress among men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(2), 137–148. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mao, L., Newman, C. E., Kidd, M. R., Saltman, D. C., Rogers, G. D., & Kippax, S. C. (2009). Self-reported sexual difficulties and their association with depression and other factors among gay men attending high HIV-caseload general practices in Australia. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 6(5), 1378–1385. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.01160.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. London: Churchill Livingstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, B. W. (1992). Treatment of erectile dysfunction with single men. In R. C. Rosen & S. R. Leiblum (Eds.), Erectile disorders: Assessment and treatment (pp. 313–340). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh, L. K., Bishop, C. J., Brockman, M., & Morrison, T. G. (2014). A systematic review of sexual dysfunction measures for gay men. How do current measures, measure up? Journal of Homosexuality, 61, 781–816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh, L. K., Morrison, T. G., & McGuire, B. E. (2008). The naked truth: Development of a scale designed to measure male body image self-consciousness during physical intimacy. Journal of Men’s Studies, 16(3), 253–265. doi:10.3149/jms.1603.253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh, L. K., Morrison, T. G., & McGuire, B. E. (2010). Male Body Image Self-Consciousness Scale. In T. D. Fisher, C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 116–117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh, L. K., Nielsen, E-J., & Morrison, T. G. (in press). “Something of a disaster”: A qualitative exploration of how heterosexual, gay, and bisexual men conceptualise sexual difficulties.

  • McGartland Rubio, D., Berg-Weger, M., Tebb, S. S., Lee, E. S., & Rauch, S. (2003). Objectifying content validity: Conducting a content validity study in social work. Social Work Research, 27(2), 94–104. doi:10.1093/swr/27.2.94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., & Dolezal, C. (2007). The Female Sexual Function Index: A methodological critique and suggestions for improvement. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 33(3), 217–224. doi:10.1080/00926230701267852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mishkind, M. E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1986). The embodiment of masculinity: Cultural, psychological, and behavioral dimensions. American Behavioral Scientist, 29(5), 545–562. doi:10.1177/000276486029005004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moorey, S., Greer, S., Watson, M., Gorman, C., Rowden, L., Tunmore, R., & Bliss, J. (1991). The factor structure and factor stability of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale in patients with cancer. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158(2), 255–259. doi:10.1192/bjp.158.2.255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, T. G., & Morrison, M. A. (2006). Psychometric properties of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ). Body Image, 3(2), 131–144. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.03.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moskowitz, D. A., & Hart, T. A. (2011). The influence of physical body traits and masculinity on anal sex roles in gay and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(4), 835–841. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9754-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nazareth, I., Boynton, P., & King, M. (2003). Problems with sexual function in people attending London general practitioners: Cross sectional study. British Medical Journal, 327(7412), 423–428. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7412.423.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32(3), 396–402. doi:10.3758/BF03200807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philaretou, A. G., & Allen, K. R. (2001). Reconstructing masculinity and sexuality. Journal of Men’s Studies, 9(3), 301–321. doi:10.3149/jms.0903.301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack, W. (1998). Real boys: Rescuing our sons from the myths of boyhood. New York: Henry Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., deCol, C., Jouvent, R., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Body image perception among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1297–1301. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potts, A. (2004). Deleuze on Viagra (or, what can a ‘Viagra-body’ do?). Body and Society, 10(1), 17–36. doi:10.1177/1357034X04041759.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poynton, T. A. (2005). Computer literacy across the lifespan: A review with implications for educators. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(6), 861–872. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, R. C., & Leiblum, S. R. (1988). A sexual scripting approach to problems of desire. In S. R. Leiblum & R. C. Rosen (Eds.), Sexual desire disorders (pp. 168–191). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosser, B. R. S., Metz, M. E., Bockting, W. O., & Buroker, T. (1997). Sexual difficulties, concerns, and satisfaction in homosexual men: An empirical study with implications for HIV prevention. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 23(1), 61–73. doi:10.1080/00926239708404418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosser, B. R. S., Short, B. J., Thurmes, P. J., & Coleman, E. (1998). Anodyspareunia, the unacknowledged sexual dysfunction: A validation study of painful receptive anal intercourse and its psychosexual concomitants in homosexual men. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 24(4), 281–292. doi:10.1080/00926239808403963.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, D. L. (2007). Sexual health and problems: Erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation and male orgasmic disorder. In J. E. Grant & M. N. Potenza (Eds.), Textbook of men’s mental health (pp. 171–204). Washington, London: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, D. L. (2012). Sexual dysfunction in men: Advances in psychotherapy, evidence-based practice. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, R. (2004). Men talking about Viagra: An exploratory study with focus groups. Men and Masculinities, 7(1), 22–30. doi:10.1177/1097184X03257439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, T. A., Morrison, T. G., & McDermott, D. T. (2010). Body image investment among gay and bisexual men over the age of 40: A test of social comparison theory and threatened masculinity theory. Gay and Lesbian Issues and Psychology Review, 6(1), 4–20. Retrieved from http://www.groups.psychology.org.au/glip/glip_review/

  • Sanchez, F. J., Greenberg, S. T., Liu, W. M., & Vilain, E. (2009). Reported effects of masculine ideals on gay men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(1), 73–87. doi:10.1037/a0013513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, D. T., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007). Body concerns in and out of the bedroom: Implications for sexual pleasure and problems. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(6), 808–820. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9205-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., & de Keizer, M. (2001). Sexual problems in gay men: An overview of empirical research. Annual Review of Sex Research, 12(1), 93–120. doi:10.1080/10532528.2001.10559795.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer, J. (2002). Dealing with missing data. Research Letters in the Information and Mathematical Sciences, 3, 153–160. Retrieved from http://muir.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/4355

  • Schreiner-Engel, P., & Schiavi, R. C. (1986). Lifetime psychopathology in individuals with low sexual desire. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174(11), 646–651. doi:10.1097/00005053-198611000-00002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, M., Hasan, S., Malik, S., & Sreeramareddy, C. T. (2010). Perceived stress, sources and severity of stress among medical undergraduates in a Pakistani medical school. BMC Medical Education, 10(2), 1–8. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-10-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender-role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(3), 323–330. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.38.3.323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Štulhofer, A., Šević, S., & Doyle, D. M. (2014). Comparing the prevalence and correlates of sexual health disturbances among heterosexual and nonheterosexual men: An overview of studies. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 2(3–4), 102–111. doi:10.1002/smrj.31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, L. M., & D’Agostino, R. B. (1992). Robustness of the t test applied to data distorted from normality by floor effects. Journal of Dental Research, 71, 1938–1943. doi:10.1177/00220345920710121601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tiefer, L. (1986). In pursuit of the perfect penis: The medicalization of male sexuality. American Behavioral Scientist, 29(5), 579–599. doi:10.1177/000276486029005006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, S. G. (2003). Gay men and anal eroticism: Tops, bottoms, and versatiles. New York, NY: Harrington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, A. C. (2006). Secure sockets layer. Computer, 39(4), 88–90. doi:10.1109/MC.2006.138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. doi:10.1177/0011000006288127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4(2), 107–116. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00014-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yule, M., Davison, J., & Brotto, L. (2011). The International Index of Erectile Function: A methodological critique and suggestions for improvement. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 37(4), 255–269. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2011.582431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, L., Hart, T. A., & Zheng, Y. (2012). The relationship between intercourse preference positions and personality traits among gay men in China. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(3), 683–689. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9819-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zilbergeld, B. (1978). Men and sex. London: Fontana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zilbergeld, B. (1992). The new male sexuality. New York: Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Department of Primary Care and Population Health, University College London, London, UK

    Lorraine K. McDonagh

  2. School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

    Ian Stewart

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A5, Canada

    Melanie A. Morrison & Todd G. Morrison

Authors
  1. Lorraine K. McDonagh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ian Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Melanie A. Morrison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Todd G. Morrison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Todd G. Morrison.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 5 and Fig. 1.

Table 5 Final version of the Gay Male Sexual Difficulties Scale
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Path diagram for higher-order confirmatory factor analysis of the Gay Male Sexual Difficulties Scale; data set A. RAD receptive anal difficulties, IAD insertive anal difficulties, ED erectile difficulties, BE body embarrassment, SFC seminal fluid concerns, FD foreskin difficulties, OSD overall sexual difficulties

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McDonagh, L.K., Stewart, I., Morrison, M.A. et al. Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Gay Male Sexual Difficulties Scale. Arch Sex Behav 45, 1299–1315 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0664-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0664-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation