Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Diet and feeding ecology of the western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) in a tropical forest fragment of Northeast India

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Primates Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Forest fragmentation alters plant species diversity and composition, and causes diverse affects on the feeding behavior of wild primates. We investigated the feeding behavior and diet of two groups of western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) inhabiting a small isolated forest patch (21 km2) in Hollongapar Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, Northeast India, over a year using focal animal sampling. H. hoolock adults spent, on average, 35.2% of their total annual activity budget on feeding, and fed on young leaves, mature leaves, flowers, fruits, petioles, buds and also on animal matter. There was marked seasonal variation in the proportions of the dietary items consumed. Fruits accounted for an average of 51% (range 34–71% per month) of feeding time over the year. This highly frugivorous diet may limit the ability of the species to survive in small and disturbed forest fragments. A total of 54 plant species (32 families) were consumed by the focal groups during the study period, but there were variations between months in the selection of these plant species. Non-tree species such as lianas were among the most highly selected species in the diet. Moraceae, comprising ten species, was the most dominant family among the food plants, accounting for 36% of annual feeding time. The present study presents quantitative and qualitative data on dietary composition, preference and selection of food plants of H. hoolock in a fragmented habitat, which can contribute to the restoration and manipulation of degraded habitats of H. hoolock.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahsan MF (2001) Socio-ecology of the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) in two forests of Bangladesh. Brookfield Zoo, compiler. The apes: challenges for the 21st century: conference proceedings. Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, pp 286–299

    Google Scholar 

  • Alfred JRB (1992) The hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock. Primate Rep 34:65–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Alfred JRB, Sati JP (1986) The gibbons with special reference to Hylobates hoolock. In: Majupuria TC (ed) Wildlife wealth of India. Resources and management. Tec Press Service, Bangkok, pp 384–390

  • Alfred JRB, Sati JP (1994) Diet and feeding in the hoolock gibbon of Garo Hills in Northeast India. Ann For 2:109–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmann J (1974) Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods. Behaviour 49(3):227–267

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J (1878) Anatomical and zoological researches: comprising an account of the zoological results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a monograph of the two cetacean genera, Platanista and Orcella. Quaritch, London

  • Arroyo-Rodríguez V, Dias PAD (2010) Effects of habitat fragmentation and disturbance on howler monkeys: a review. Am J Primatol 72:1–16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodríguez V, Mandujano S, BenítezMalvido J, CuendeFanton C (2007) The influence of large tree density on howler monkey (Alouatta palliate mexicana) presence in very small rain forest fragments. Biotropica 39:760–766

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett TQ (1999) Feeding and ranging behaviour of the white-headed gibbon (Hylobates lar) in Khai Yai National Park, Thailand. Ph.D. thesis, Washington University

  • Borah M, Devi A, Kumar A (2014) Feeding on non-plant food items by western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock). Curr Sci 107:1657–1660

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockelman W, Molur S, Geissmann T (2008) Hoolock hoolock. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species version 2013.2 http://www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 23 February 2016

  • Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Natraj, Dehra Dun

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman CA, Chapman LJ (2002) Foraging challenges of red colobus monkeys: influence of nutrients and secondary compounds. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 133:861–875

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman CA, Gillespie TR, Goldberg TL (2005) Primates and the ecology of their infectious diseases: how will anthropogenic change affect host-parasite interactions? Evol Anthr 14:134–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chetry D, Chetry R, Bhattacharjee PC (2007) Hoolock: the ape of India. Gibbon Conservation Centre, Assam, pp 23–26

  • Chiarello AG (1993) Activity pattern of the brown howler monkey Alouatta fusca, Geoffroy 1812, in a forest fragment of Southern Brazil. Primates 34:289–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiarello AG (1994) Diet of the brown howler monkey Alouatta fusca in a semideciduous forest fragment of southern Brazil. Primates 35:25–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhury A (1987) Notes on the distribution and conservation of Phayre’s leaf monkey and hoolock gibbon in India. Tiger Paper 14:2–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Choudhury A (1990) Population dynamics of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) in Assam, India. Am J Primatol 20:37–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cottam G, Curtis JT (1956) The use of distance measurement in phytosociological sampling. Ecol 37:451–460

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dam SN (2006) A short study on wild hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) in Assam and Bangladesh. Gibbon J 2:40–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Das J (2002) Socio-ecology of hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock hoolock (Harlan, 1834) in response to habitat change. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India

  • Das J, Biswas J, Medhi R, Bose J, Chetry D, Bujorborua P, Begum F (2003a) Distributional status of hoolock gibbon (Bunopithecus hoolock) and their conservation in southern Assam, India. Tiger Paper 30(4):26–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Das J, Feeroz MM, Islam MA, Biswas J, Bujorborua P, Chetry D, Medhi R, Bose J (2003b) Distribution of hoolock gibbon (Bunopithecus hoolock hoolock) in India and Bangladesh. Zoos Print J 18:969–976

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das J, Bhattacherjee PC, Biswas J, Chetry D (2005) Western hoolock gibbon: socioecology, threats and conservation action plan. Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, and Primate Research Centre, Northeast Centre, Guwahati, India

  • Davies NB (1978) Ecological questions about territorial behaviour. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. Sinauer, Sunderland

    Google Scholar 

  • Estrada A, Coates-Estrada R (1996) Tropical rain forest fragmentation and wild populations of primates at Los Tuxtlas. Int J Primatol 5:759–783

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahrig L (2003) Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 34:487–515

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fashing PJ, Dierenfeld ES, Mowry CB (2007) Influence of plant and soil chemistry on food selection, ranging patterns, and biomass of Colobus guereza in Kakamega Forest, Kenya. Int J Primatol 28:673–703

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feeroz MM, Islam MA (1992) Ecology and behaviour of hoolock gibbon of Bangladesh. MARK (Multidisciplinary Action Research Centre), Dhaka, Bangladesh

    Google Scholar 

  • Galetti M, Pedroni F, Morellato LPC (1994) Diet of the brown howler monkey (Alouatta fusca) in a forest fragment in Southern Brazil. Mammalia 58:111–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert KA (2003) Primates and fragmentation of the Amazon forest. In: Marsh LK (ed) Primates in fragments ecology and conservation. Kluwer Academic, New York, pp 145–157

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta AK, Kumar A (1994) Feeding ecology and conservation of the Phayre’s leaf monkey Presbytis phayrei in Northeast India. Biol Conserv 69:301–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta AK, Sharma N, Dasgupta S, Chakraboty D, Hazarika H (2004) Conservation of hoolock gibbon (Bunopithecus hoolock) in Northeast India. ENVIS Bull: Wildl Prot Area 8:1–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasan MK, Feeroz MM, Islam MA, Kabir MM, Begum S (2007) Substrate used by western Hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) in a semi-evergreen forest of Bangladesh. Zoos Print J 22:2702–2705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hladik A (1978) Phenology of leaf production in rain forest of Gabon: distribution and composition of food for folivores. In: Montgomery GG (ed) The ecology of arboreal folivores. Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, pp 51–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Irwin MT (2008) Feeding ecology of Propithecus diadema in forest fragments and continuous forest. Int J Primatol 29:95–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Islam MA, Feeroz MM (1992) Ecology of hoolock gibbon in Bangladesh. Primates 33:451–464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kadavul K, Parthasarathy N (1999) Structure and composition of woody species in tropical semi-evergreen forest of Kalrayan hills, Eastern Ghats, India. Trop Ecol 40:77–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakati K (1997) Food selection and ranging in the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock Harlan 1834) in Borajan reserve forest, Assam. M.Sc. dissertation. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun, India

  • Kakati K (2004) Impact of forest fragmentation on the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock Harlan 1834) in Assam, India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

  • Kakati K, Raghavan R, Chellam R, Qureshi Q, Chivers DJ (2009) Status of western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) population in fragmented forests of Eastern Assam. Primate Conserv 24:127–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanjilal UN, Bor NL (2005) Flora of Assam. Omsons, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Kibaja M (2014) Diet of the ashy red colobus (Piliocolobus tephrosceles) and crop-raiding in a forest-farm mosaic, Mbuzi, Rukwa Region, Tanzania. Primate Conserv 28:109–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lennart WP, Büntge ABS, Herzog SK, Michael K (2010) Effects of habitat structure and fragmentation on diversity and abundance of primates in tropical deciduous forests in Bolivia. Int J Primatol 31(5):796–812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy TE, Bieregaard RO Jr, Rylands AB, Malcolm JR, Quintela CE, Harper LH, Brown KS Jr, Powell AH, Powell GVN, Schubart HOR, Mays MB (1986) Edge and other effects of isolation on Amazon forest fragments. In: Soule ME (ed) Conservation biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, pp 257–285

    Google Scholar 

  • McConkey KR, Aldy F, Ario A, Chivers DJ (2002) Selection of fruits by gibbons (Hylobates mulleri × agilis) in the rain forests of central Borneo. Int J Primatol 23(1):123–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKey DB, Gartlan JS (1981) Food selection by black colobus monkeys (Colobus satanas) in relation to plant chemistry. Biol J Linn Soc 16:115–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milton K (1986) Features of digestive physiology in primates. News Physiol Sci 1:76–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Milton K (1987) Primate diets and gut morphology: implications for human evolution. In: Harris M, Ross EB (eds) Food and evolution: toward a theory of human food habits. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, pp 93–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Milton K (1993) Diet and primate evolution. Sci Am 269:86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milton K (1996) Interactions between a host-specific bot fly, Alouatta myiabaeri, and a free-ranging howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) population in Panama. J Zool 239:39–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milton K (1999) Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us? Nutrition 15:488–498

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milton K, Jenness R (1987) Ascorbate content of Neotropical plant parts available to monkeys and bats. Experientia 43:339

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mturi A (1991) The feeding ecology and behaviour of the red colobus (Colobus badius kirkii). Ph.D. thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam

  • Mukherjee RP (1982) Survey of non-human primates of Tripura, India. J Zool Soc India 34:70–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee RP (1986) The ecology of hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) in Tripura, India. In: Else JG, Lee PC (eds) Primate ecology and conservation. Cambridge University Press, UK, pp 115–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller-Dombois D, Ellenberg H (1974) Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ni Q-Y, Huang B, Liang Z-L, Wang X-W, Jiang X-L (2014) Dietary variability in the western black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor) inhabiting an isolated and disturbed forest fragment in Southern Yunnan, China. Am J Primatol 76:217–229

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oates JF, Waterman PG, Choo GM (1980) Food selection by the South Indian leaf monkey Presbytis johnii, in relation of leaf chemistry. Oecologia 45:45–56

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Onderdonk DA, Chapman CA (2000) Coping with forest fragmentation: the primates of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Int J Primatol 21:587–611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pachuau SV (2011) Response of western Hoolock Gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) in terms of population abundance and resource utilization across various disturbance regimes in Dampa Tiger Reserve. Mizoram. M.Sc. thesis, Saurashtra University, Gujarat, pp. 66

  • Poulsen JR, Clark CJ, Smith TB (2001) Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of the gray-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena) in Cameroon. Am J Primatol 54:91–105

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rawat GS, Desai A, Somanathan H, Wikramanayake ED (2001) Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests. (IM0105) available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0105

  • Sarkar P (2000) Ecology and dynamics of social relationships of Assamese macaque: Macaca assamensis (McClelland, 1839). Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, India

  • Sarma K (2015) Studies on population status, behavioural and habitat ecology of eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology (deemed university), Arunachal Pradesh, India

  • Sarma K, Kumar A, Krishna M, Tripathi OP, Gajurel PR (2013) Ground feeding observations on corn (Zea mays) by eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys). Curr Sci 104(5):587–589

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarma K, Krishna M, Kumar A (2014) Fragmented populations of the Vulnerable eastern hoolock gibbon Hoolock leuconedys in the Lower Dibang Valley district, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Oryx 49:133–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma N (2008) Evaluation of the conservation status of the diurnal primates of Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, northeastern India. Final report, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India

  • Singh N, Mani TT, Prakash D, Singh P (2012) A review on medicinal properties of Ichnocarpous frutescens. Indian J Novel Drug Deliv 4(1):24–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava A (1991) Insectivory and its significance to langur diets. Primates 32:237–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tickell SR (1864) Notes on the gibbon of Tenasserim, Hylobates lar. J Asiat Soc Bengal 33:196–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilson RL (1979) On the behaviour of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in Assam, India. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 76:1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Verma RK, Singh N, Gupta MM (1987) Triterpenoids of Ichnocarpus frutescens. Fitoterapia 8(4):271–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker S (2005) Highlights of the population and habitat viability assessment for western hoolock gibbon (Bunopithecus hoolock hoolock) held in Bangladesh. Zoos Print J 20(4):2–3

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker S, Molur S, Brockelman WY (2007) Western hoolock gibbon, Hoolock hoolock (Harlan, 1831). In: Mittermeier RA et al (eds) Primates in peril: the world’s 25 most endangered primates, 2006–2008, vol 22. Primate Conserv, Conservation International, Arlington, Virginia, pp 1–40

  • Whitten AJ (1982) Diet and feeding behavior of Kloss gibbons on Siberut Island, Indonesia. Folia Primatol 37:177–208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zanette L, Doyle P, Tre´mont S (2000) Food shortage in small fragments: evidence from an area-sensitive passerine. Ecology 81:1654–1666

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We highly acknowledge Dr. Warren Y. Brockelman for his valuable suggestions, comments and sincere effort to improve the quality of the manuscript. We extend our sincere gratitude to the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Basistha, Guwahati, Assam, for his kind permission to carry out the research work in HGWLS, Assam. We sincerely thank forest officials of the Meleng Beat Office, HGWLS, especially Mr. Daben Borah, for his assistance during the entire fieldwork. We also thank Dr. Gitamani Dutta and Dr. Rajeev Basumatary for their valuable suggestions and help, and Mr. Arup Kumar Das, Aaranyak, for help in making the geographic information system-based map of the study area. We also thank Mr. Lakshminath Rabha, Assistant Professor, D. R. College, Golaghat for language editing.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Science, Tezpur University, Napaam, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India

    Mrigakhi Borah & Ashalata Devi

  2. Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology (NERIST), Itanagar, Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh, 791109, India

    Awadhesh Kumar

Authors
  1. Mrigakhi Borah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ashalata Devi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Awadhesh Kumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ashalata Devi.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Borah, M., Devi, A. & Kumar, A. Diet and feeding ecology of the western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) in a tropical forest fragment of Northeast India. Primates 59, 31–44 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-017-0627-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-017-0627-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation