Abstract
China’s approach to Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries as a group has drawn suspicion, criticism, and competition within and beyond the region, particularly given that the economic results have failed to satisfy CEE countries. Arguably, China adopts a functional approach to China-led multilateral platforms by employing soft law to govern interaction and cooperation among participants involved, aiming to increase its capacity to adapt to changing international circumstances and lessen concerns about sovereign costs among the participating actors. Yet, it is also widely acknowledged that pragmatic thinking ineluctably yields to a realist mentality, leading to more commentaries on China’s unfulfilled influence across different regions to some extent. This article believes that soft law can still have a role to play in the context of geopolitical competition, as shown in China–CEE cooperation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not applicable.
Notes
Among these 16 countries, there are 11 EU member states, including Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia, and 5 non-EU member states, consisting of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia. In 2019, Greece, as an EU member state, joined the group and formed the “17 + 1”. Since three Baltic states’ withdrawal, this China-led multilateralism has been referred to as the “14 + 1” initiative.
Abbreviations
- EU :
-
European Union
- CEE :
-
Central and Eastern Europe
- CEEC :
-
Central and Eastern European countries
References
Abbott KW, Snidal D (2000) Hard and soft law in international governance. Int Organ 54(3):421–456
Baltictimes.com. (2023) “Lithuania, China in talks to normalise diplomatic relations”, Nov. 10, available at: https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuania__china_in_talks_to_normalize_diplomatic_relations___minister/
Bergsen P, Šniukaitė V (2022) Central and Eastern Europe become hawkish on China, Sept. 16, available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/09/central-and-eastern-europe-become-hawkish-china
Brînză A (2019) The ‘17+1’ mechanism. China Q Int Strat Stud 5(2):213–231
Brînză A (2021) “How China’s 17+1 became a zombie mechanism”, The Diplomat, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2021/02/how-chinas-171-became-a-zombie-mechanism/
Castrillón-Kerrigan D (2022) China-CEE relations in a new era. Revista CS 37:63–84
Chayes A, Chayes AH (1996) The new sovereignty. Harvard University Press, London
China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2023) Cooperation between China and CEECs. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gjhdqzz_681964/zgzdogjhz/1206x0_679932/
China-CEEC.org. (2019) “Full text of the Dubrovnik guidelines for cooperation between China and CEE countries”, available at: http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/zdogjhz_1/201904/t20190415_6566760.htm
China-CEEC.org. (2021) Exchanges and cooperation. http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/hzjl_1/hzjc/
Cieślik E (2019) Looking for the sectoral interdepence. Qual Quant 53(4):2041–2062
Delfi.en (2023) Lithuania’s position on China has not changed, Dec. 19, available at: https://www.delfi.lt/en/politics/foreign-minister-lithuania-s-position-on-china-has-not-changed-95417471
Desta MG (2012) Soft law in international law. In: Bjorklund AK , Reinisch A (eds.), International law and soft law, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar
Fedorov YE (2013) Continuity and change in Russia’s policy towards Central and Eastern Europe. Communis Post-Commun 46(3):315–326
Garlick J (2019) China’s economic diplomacy in CEE. Eur Asia Stud 71(8):1390–1414
Garlick J, Qin F (2023) China’s ‘do-as-I-do’ paradigm. Pac Rev. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2023.2290619
Gu H (2023) Frustrated relations? Springer, China with Central and Eastern Europe, Singapore
Guzman AT, Meyer T (2010) International soft law. J Leg Anal 2(1):171–225
Heath R, Gray A (2018) Beware Chinese Trojan horses in Balkans, Politico, July 27th, available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/johannes-hahn-beware-chinese-trojan-horses-in-the-balkans-eu-warns-enlargement-politico-podcast/
Hillgenberg H (1999) A fresh look at soft law. Eur J Int Law 10(3):499–515
Holslag J (2017) How China’s New Silk Road threaten European trade. Int Spectator 52(1):46–60
Huanqiu.cn. (2022) “‘Shortsighted’ Estonia and Latvia quite China-CEEC out of US pressure”, Aug. 13, available at: https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202208/1272863.shtml
Ivanov P (2023) Together or apart: the conundrum of the China-Russia partnership, Asia Society Policy Institute, available at: https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/together-and-apart-conundrum-china-russia-partnership#what-divides-russia-and-china--16732
Jacoby W (2014) Different cases, different faces. Asia Eur J 12(1–2):199–214
Jakimówm M (2019) Desecuritisation as a soft power strategy. Asia Eur J 17(4):369–385
Jakóbowski J (2018) Chinese-led regional multilateralism in CEE, Africa and Latin America. J Contemp China 27(113):1–15
Karásková I (2020) “Engaging China in 17+1”, The Diplomat, April 7th, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/engaging-china-in-171-time-for-the-act-strategy/
Kavalski E (2020) The unexpected consequences of China’s cooperation with CEE. Int Stud 57(1):1–19
Kavalski E (2021) The end of China’s romance with CEE. Global Media China 6(1):77–99
Kavalski E (2019) “China’s ‘16+1’ is dead? Long live the ‘17+1’”, The Diplomat, Mar. 29th, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/chinas-161-is-dead-long-live-the-171/
Khaze NM, Wang X (2021) Is China’s rising influence in the Western Balkans a threat to European integration? J Contemp Eur Stud 29(2):234–250
Koppel M (2009) The effectiveness of soft law. Georgetown Int Environ Law Rev 21(4):821–836
Kuczyńska-Zonik A, Stepniewski T (2022) China and CEE: the case of the Baltic states. In: Li X (ed) China-EU relations in a new era of great transformation. Routledge, Abingdon, pp 192–208
Lin Z (2019) Xi Jinping’s ‘major country diplomacy.’ J Contemp China 28(115):31–46
Matura T (2019) China-CEE trade, investment and politics. Eur Asia Stud 71(3):388–407
McCalpin M (2017) Belt & Road is back on the rails in Eastern Europe, Reconnecting Asia, available at: https://reconasia.csis.org/belt-road-back-rails-eastern-europe/
Meyer T (2009) Soft law as delegation. Fordham Int Law J 32(3):888–942
Muzikárová S (2023) Why some EU countries in the East are still pro-Russia, Feb. 6, available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/2/6/why-some-eu-countries-still-harbour-pro-russian-sentiments
Pan C (2012) Knowledge, desire and power in global politics. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Pavlićević D (2018) ‘China Threat’ and ‘China Opportunity.’ J Contemp China 27(113):688–702
Pavlićević D (2016) China in Central and Eastern Europe, The Diplomat, June 16th, available at: http://thediplomat.com/2016/06/china-in-central-and-eastern-europe-4-myths/
People.cn (2016) “To add vigour to China-CEE Cooperation [为中国-中东欧合作再添活力]”, June 14th, available at: http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0614/c1002-28441618.html
Peters A, Pagotto I (2006) Soft law as a new mode of governance, New Modes of Governance Project (04/D11), European Commission
Politico.eu. (2022) Down to 14+1: Estonia and Latvia quit China’s club in Eastern Europe, Aug. 11, available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/down-to-14-1-estonia-and-latvia-quit-chinas-club-in-eastern-europe/
Przychodniak M (2021) Why a United Front of CEE countries against China is not in the cards, April, 20, available at: https://chinaobservers.eu/why-a-united-front-of-cee-countries-against-china-is-not-in-the-cards/
Ramasamy B, Yeung M (2020) China’s outward foreign direct investment to developing countries. J Asia Pac Econ 27(1):124–146
Shaffer GC, Pollack MA (2020) Hard vs. soft law. Minn Law Rev 94(3):706–799
Silvius R (2021) China’s Belt and Road Initiative as nascent world order structure and concept? J Contemp China 30(128):314–329
Sindico F (2006) Soft law and the elusive quest for sustainable global governance. Leiden J Int Law 19(3):829–846
Song W (2018) China’s long march to Central and Eastern Europe. Eur Rev 26(4):755–766
Song W (2019) Logic of the Chinese developmental state and China’s geo-economic engagement with CEE. Asia Eur J 17(4):387–401
Song L, Pavlićević D (2019) China’s multi-layered multilateralism: a case study of China and Central and Eastern Europe cooperation framework. Chin Political Sci Rev 4(3):277–302
Turcsányi R (2020) China and the frustrated region. China Rep 56(1):60–77
Vangeli A (2018) Global China and symbolic power. J Contemp China 27(113):674–687
Vangeli A (2020) China: a new geo-economic approach to the Balkans. In: Bieber F,Tzifakis N (eds.), The Western Balkans in the world, Abingdon: Routledge
Wang H (2019) China’s approach to the Belt and Road Initiative. J Int Econ Law 22(1):29–55
Wu B, Huo Y, Liu Z (2020) A review of the cooperation between China and central and eastern European countries (2012–2020) [中国-中东欧国家合作进展与评估报告 (2012–2020) ]. China Social Sciences Press, Beijing
Xu Y (2020) Beyond pandemic. Working paper, Johns Hopkins University. https://www.aicgs.org/2020/05/beyond-pandemic-china-171-and-the-influence-competition-in-the-cee-region/
Zürn M (2004) Global governance and legitimacy problems. Gov Oppos 39(2):260–287
Zweers W, Shopov V, Putten F-P, Petkova M, Lamstra M (2020) China and the EU in the Western Balkans. Netherlands Institute of International Relations, Clingendael Report (August), The Hague
Funding
This research is supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (21CGJ022).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The author confirms sole responsibility for this article.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The author declares no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Yang, Y. The role of soft law in China-led multilateralism: revisiting China–CEE cooperation. Asia Eur J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-024-00696-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-024-00696-y