Abstract
For centuries, earth materials have been used in Saudi Arabia in building construction. Globally, these materials re-emerged as one of the possible solutions to the high energy consumption in residential buildings. Therefore, this research was intended to study the applicability of using the available earth materials as a potential solution and replacement for the current conventional materials in Najd area, Saudi Arabia. Four different soils from Najd area were collected and characterized to find out their physical and chemical properties. The soils were stabilized using different dosages of either cement or hydrated lime (mixed at 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5% and 15% by the dry weight of the soil) and then assessed in terms of both their unconfined compressive strength and durability. The results indicated the superiority of cement stabilization in developing strong and durable soil mixtures that can be used as construction materials. Also, the durability of the soils was enhanced with the addition of different stabilizers. Comparing the results with the available standards, both the strength and durability of the soils proved the possibility of using the selected soils as construction materials. Finally, several correlations were developed through statistical analysis to address the mechanical properties of the stabilized soils, including the modulus of elasticity, density and stabilizer content. Such correlations could predict the mechanical properties of the stabilized soils and, hence, help in analysing the behaviour of earth materials.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Abd-ur-Rehman HM, Al-Sulaiman FA, Mehmood A, Shakir S, Umer M (2018) The potential of energy savings and the prospects of cleaner energy production by solar energy integration in the residential buildings of Saudi Arabia. J Clean Prod 183:1122–1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.187
Ahmed O, Ibrahim A (2018) The mud traditional architecture of the Sudan and Saudi Arabia: the difference in employment techniques (Issue May). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.25416.01287
Aiban SA, Al-Abdul Wahhab H, Al-Amoudi OSB, Ahmed HR (1998) Performance of a stabilized marl base: a case study. Constr Build Mater 12(6–7):329–340
Ajabi Naeini A, Siddiqua S, Cherian C (2021) A novel stabilized rammed earth using pulp mill fly ash as alternative low carbon cementing material. Constr Build Mater 300:124003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124003
Al-Amoudi OSB (2002) Characterization and chemical stabilization of Al-Qurayyah sabkha soil. J Mater Civ Eng 14(6):478–484. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2002)14:6(478)
Al-Amoudi OSB, Al-Homaidy AAK, Maslehuddin M, Tawfik AS (2017) Method and mechanism of soil stabilization using electric arc furnace dust. Nat Sci Rep (In press)
Al-Amoudi OSB, Khan K, Al-Kahtani NS (2010) Stabilization of a Saudi calcareous marl soil. Constr Build Mater 24(10):1848–1854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.019
Al-Farraj AS (2011) Mieralogical composition of limestone rock and soil from Jubaila Formation. Asian J Earth Sci 4(4):203–213. https://doi.org/10.2307/3974186
Alley PJ (1948) Rammed earth construction. NZ Eng 3(6):582
Al-Malack MH, Mahyoub G, Al-amoudi OSB, Bukhari AA (2016) Stabilization of indigenous Saudi Arabian soils using fuel oil flyash. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 28(2):165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2014.04.005
Al-Malik AS (1994) Survey and classification of soils on a selected area of Wadi Hanifa Basin. King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Al-Refeai T, Al-Ghamdy D (1994) Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia. Geotech Geol Eng 12:253–276
Alshammari AM, Hamid AM (2016). Calcareous sediment in Saudi Arabia: a review of marl soil. 2nd International Conference on Architecture, Structure and Civil Engineering (ICASCE’16), pp 46–53
Al-Sheikh AA, El-Kady HA, Al-Awajy MH, Sallam AS, Al-Malik AS (1995) Clay minerals of soils at Wadi Hanifa (Najd Plateau, Saudi Arabia). Egypt J Appl Sci 10(6):411–426
Amid HM, Thierry M, Jean-Claude V, Bertrand F (2012) Influence of the clay content of a lime-treated soil on its compression strength. ISSMGE - TC 211 International Symposium on Ground Improvement, pp 1285–1291. https://doi.org/10.3850/978-981-07-3560-9_05-0518
Amiri M, Sanjari M, Porhonar F (2022) Microstructural evaluation of the cement stabilization of hematite-rich red soil. Case Stud Constr Mater 16:e00935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e00935
Ampera B, Aydogmus T (2005) Recent experiences with cement and lime stabilization of local typical poor cohesive soil. Geotechnik-Kolloquium Freiberg 11(March):2005–2012
Aqeel A (2016) Investigation of expansive soils in Obhor Sabkha, Jeddah-Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci 9(4):314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2341-x
ARCHNET (2019) Abd al-Rahman Nassif House. Available Online: https://www.archnet.org/sites/88
Arrigoni A, Beckett C, Ciancio D, Dotelli G (2017) Life cycle analysis of environmental impact vs. durability of stabilised rammed earth. Constr Build Mater 142:128–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.066
Asgari MR, Baghebanzadeh Dezfuli A, Bayat M (2015) Experimental study on stabilization of a low plasticity clayey soil with cement/lime. Arab J Geosci 8(3):1439–1452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1173-1
ASTM D2166 (2016) Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. Annual Book of Standards, 04.08
ASTM D2487 (2017) Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). Annual Book of Standards, 04.08
ASTM D559 (2016) Standard test methods for wetting and drying compacted soil-cement mixtures. ASTM International. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0559-03.Annual
Babsail MO, Al-Qawasmi J (2014) Vernacular architecture in Saudi Arabia: revival of displaced traditions. Vernacular Architecture: Towards a Sustainable Future. CRC Press, pp 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1201/b17393
Baldovino JDJA, Izzo RLDS, Moreira EB, Rose JL (2019) Optimizing the evolution of strength for lime-stabilized rammed soil. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 11(4):882–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2018.10.008
Bell FG (1996) Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils. Eng Geol 42(4):223–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(96)00028-2
Bera AK, Chandra SN, Ghosh A, Ghosh A (2009) Unconfined compressive strength of fly ash reinforced with jute geotextiles. Geotext Geomembr 27(5):391–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2008.12.004
Bergado DT, Anderson LR, Miura N, Balasubramaniam AS (1996) Soft ground improvement: in lowland and other environments. American Society of Civil Engineers
Berge B (2009) The ecology of building materials. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080949741
Bergold ST, Goetz-Neunhoeffer F, Neubauer J (2013) Quantitative analysis of C-S-H in hydrating alite pastes by in-situ XRD. Cem Concr Res 53:119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.001
Bhuvaneshwari S, Robinson RG, Gandhi SR (2014) Behaviour of lime treated cured expansive soil composites. Indian Geotech J 44(3):278–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-013-0081-3
Bi J, Chian SC (2021) Modelling strength development of cement-stabilised clay and clay with sand impurity cured under varying temperatures. Bull Eng Geol Env 80(8):6275–6302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02281-8
Bian X, Zeng L, Ji F, Xie M, Hong Z (2022) Plasticity role in strength behavior of cement-phosphogypsum stabilized soils. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2022.01.003
Buhrke VE, Jenkins R, Smith DK (1998) A practical guide for the preparation of specimens for X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction analysis. Wiley-VCH
Burroughs S (2008) Soil property criteria for rammed earth stabilization. J Mater Civ Eng 20(3):264–273. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2008)20
Burroughs S (2009) Relationships between the density and strength of rammed earth. Proc Inst Civ Eng Constr Mater 162(3):113–120. https://doi.org/10.1680/coma.2009.162
Chew SH, Kamruzzaman AHM, Lee FH (2004) Physicochemical and engineering behavior of cement treated clays. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130(7):696–706. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2004)130:7(696)
Ciancio D, Beckett C (2015) Rammed earth construction: cutting-edge research on traditional and modern rammed earth. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18046
Ciancio D, Beckett CTS, Carraro JAH (2014) Optimum lime content identification for lime-stabilised rammed earth. Constr Build Mater 53:59–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.077
Ciancio D, Gibbings J (2012) Experimental investigation on the compressive strength of cored and molded cement-stabilized rammed earth samples. Constr Build Mater 28(1):294–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.08.070
Dash SK, Hussain M (2012) Lime stabilization of soils: reappraisal. J Mater Civ Eng 24(6):707–714. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000431
Di Matteo L, Bigotti F, Ricco R (2009) Best-fit models to estimate modified proctor properties of compacted soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(7):992–996. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0000022
Domede N, Parent T, Sellier A (2019) Mechanical behaviour of granite: a compilation, analysis and correlation of data from around the world. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 23(2):193–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1275984
Eshteeaque EM, Said FA (2008) The native architecture of Saudi Arabia: architecture and identity. Riyadh Municipality, Riyadh
Facey W (2015) Back to earth: adobe building in Saudi Arabia. Edited by Prince Sultan bin Salman Abd al-Aziz Al Sa'ud. Riyadh: Al Turath Foundation
Gallipoli D, Bruno AW, Perlot C, Mendes J (2017) A geotechnical perspective of raw earth building. Acta Geotech 12:463–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-016-0521-1
Ghasemalizadeh S, Toufigh V (2020) Durability of rammed earth materials. Int J Geomech 20(11):04020201. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gm.1943-5622.0001829
González-López JR, Juárez-Alvarado CA, Ayub-Francis B, Mendoza-Rangel JM (2018) Compaction effect on the compressive strength and durability of stabilized earth blocks. Constr Build Mater 163:179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.074
Guadagnuolo M, Aurilio M, Basile A, Faella G (2020) Modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of tuff masonry: results of a wide set of flat-jack tests. Buildings 10(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/BUILDINGS10050084
Gueridi F, Derriche Z (2021) Strength development and lime consumption progress relationship in lime stabilized bentonite samples. Bull Eng Geol Env 80(7):5505–5514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02262-x
Gullu H, Hazirbaba K (2010) Unconfined compressive strength and post-freeze-thaw behavior of fine-grained soils treated with geofiber and synthetic fluid. Cold Reg Sci Technol 62(2–3):142–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2010.04.001
Harris MT (1969) A study of the correlation potential of the optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, and consolidated drained shear strength of plastic fine-grained soils with index properties. University of Missouri-Rolla
Hartono E, Wardani SPR, Muntohar AS (2018) The effect of cement stabilization on the strength of the Bawen’s siltstone. MATEC Web Conf 195:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819503012
Hausmann MR (1990) Engineering principles of ground modification. McGrow-Hill Companies
Heitor A, Parkinson J, Kotzur T (2021) The role of soil stabilisation in mitigating the impact of climate change in transport infrastructure with reference to wetting processes. Appl Sci 11(3):1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031080
Herzog A, Mitchell JK (1963) Reactions accompanying stabilization of clay with cement. Highw Res Rec 36:146–171. Accessed (online): 2022. Available at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/hrr/1963/36/36-008.pdf
Ho TD, Valance A, Dupont P, Ould El Moctar A (2014) Aeolian sand transport: length and height distributions of saltation trajectories. Aeol Res 12:65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2013.11.004
Horpibulsuk S, Katkan W, Sirilerdwattana W, Rachan R (2006) Strength development in cement stabilized low plasticity and coarse grained soils: laboratory and field study. Soils Found 46(3):351–366. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.46.351
Houben H, Guillaud H (1994) Earth construction. A comprehensive guide. Earth construction series. Craterre-Eag
Jauberthie R, Rendell F, Rangeard D, Molez L (2010) Stabilisation of estuarine silt with lime and/or cement. Appl Clay Sci 50(3):395–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.09.004
Joel M, Agbede IO (2011) Mechanical-cement stabilization of laterite for use as flexible pavement material. J Mater Civ Eng 23(2):146–152. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000148
Jurowski K, Grzeszczyk S (2018) Influence of selected factors on the relationship between the dynamic elastic modulus and compressive strength of concrete. Materials 11(4):1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11040477
KAPSARC (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center) (2022) Electricity consumption by sectors. Accessed (online): 2022. Available at: https://datasource.kapsarc.org/explore/dataset/electricity-consumption-by-sectors/export/?disjunctive.region&disjunctive.type_of_consumption&sort=-year&dataChart=eyJxdWVyaWVzIjpbeyJjaGFydHMiOlt7InR5cGUiOiJjb2x1bW4iLCJmdW5jIjoiQVZHIiwieUF4aXMiOiJ2YWx1ZSIsI
Kassim KA, Chern KK (2004) Lime stabilized Malaysian cohesive soils. Malays J Civ Eng 16(1):13–23
Kouakou CH, Morel JC (2009) Strength and elasto-plastic properties of non-industrial building materials manufactured with clay as a natural binder. Appl Clay Sci 44(1–2):27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2008.12.019
Kumar A, Walia BS, Bajaj A (2007) Influence of fly ash, lime, and polyster fibers on compaction and strength properties of expansive soil. J Mater Civ Eng 19(3):242–248. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:3(242)
Lee BJ, Kee SH, Oh T, Kim YY (2015) Effect of cylinder size on the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of concrete from static and dynamic tests. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2015(2). https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/580638
Lemaire K, Deneele D, Bonnet S, Legret M (2013) Effects of lime and cement treatment on the physicochemical, microstructural and mechanical characteristics of a plastic silt. Eng Geol 166:255–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.09.012
Liu X, Hu M, Ke S, Fu C, Guo X, Ye X (2018) A novel rammed earthen material stabilized with steel slags. Constr Build Mater 189:1134–1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.075
Malkanthi SN, Balthazaar N, Perera AADAJ (2020) Lime stabilization for compressed stabilized earth blocks with reduced clay and silt. Case Stud Constr Mater 12:e00326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00326
Maniatidis V, Walker P (2003) A review of rammed earth construction. Innovation Project “Developing Rammed Earth for UK Housing”, Natural Building Technology Group, Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering, University of Bath, 12
Medvey B, Dobszay G (2020) Durability of stabilized earthen constructions: a review. Geotech Geol Eng 38(3):2403–2425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01208-6
Morel JC, Pkla A, Walker P (2007) Compressive strength testing of compressed earth blocks. Constr Build Mater 21(2):303–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.08.021
Narani SS, Zare P, Abbaspour M, Fahimifar A, Siddiqua S, Mir Mohammad Hosseini SM (2021) Evaluation of fiber-reinforced and cement-stabilized rammed-earth composite under cyclic loading. Constr Build Mater 296:123746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123746
Nelson SA (2014) Weathering & clay minerals. Tulane University. Accessed (online): 2022. Available at: https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/Weathering_ClayMinerals.pdf
Neville AM (1995) Properties of concrete, 5th edn. Pearson Prentice Hall
Noguchi T, Nemati KM (1995) Relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of high-strength concrete. J Struct Constr Eng 60:1–10
Norton J (1997) Handbook on building with earth. Intermed. Technol. Publ. Ltd.
Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S (2012) Earth construction: lessons from the past for future eco-efficient construction. Constr Build Mater 29:512–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.054
Pakbaz MS, Alipour R (2012) Influence of cement addition on the geotechnical properties of an Iranian clay. Appl Clay Sci 67–68:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2012.07.006
Phanikumar BR, Ramanjaneya Raju E (2020) Compaction and strength characteristics of an expansive clay stabilised with lime sludge and cement. Soils Found 60(1):129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2020.01.007
Porter H, Blake J, Dhami NK, Mukherjee A (2018) Rammed earth blocks with improved multifunctional performance. Cement Concr Compos 92(March):36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.04.013
Reddy BVV, Mani M, Walker P (2019) Earthen dwellings and structures: current status in their adoption. Springer
Reddy BVV, Suresh V, Rao KSN (2017) Characteristic compressive strength of cement-stabilized rammed earth. J Mater Civ Eng 29(2):04016203. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533
Richardson IG (2008) The calcium silicate hydrates. Cem Concr Res 38(2):137–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.11.005
Sallam A (2002) Evaluation of some soils in Najd Plateau (central region, Saudi Arabia). J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 1(2):21–40
Samadianfard S, Toufigh V (2020) Energy use and thermal performance of rammed-earth materials. J Mater Civ Eng 32(10):04020276. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003364
Saride S, Puppala AJ, Chikyala SR (2013) Swell-shrink and strength behaviors of lime and cement stabilized expansive organic clays. Appl Clay Sci 85(1):39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.09.008
Scrivener K, Snellings R, Lothenbach B (2016) A practical guide to microstructural analysis of cementitious materials, 1st edn. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b19074
Sekhar DC, Nayak S (2018) Utilization of granulated blast furnace slag and cement in the manufacture of compressed stabilized earth blocks. Constr Build Mater 166:531–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.125
Severin KP (2004) Dispersive spectrometry of common rock. Springer. Accessed (online): 2022. Available at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4020-2841-0
Shan Y, Wang X, Cui J, Mo H, Li Y (2021) Effects of clay mineral composition on the dynamic properties and fabric of artificial marine clay. J Mar Sci Eng 9(11):1–32. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111216
Sharma LK, Sirdesai NN, Sharma KM, Singh TN (2018) Experimental study to examine the independent roles of lime and cement on the stabilization of a mountain soil: a comparative study. Appl Clay Sci 152:183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.11.012
Shooshpasha I, Shirvani RA (2015) Effect of cement stabilization on geotechnical properties of sandy soils. Geomech Eng 8(1):17–31. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2015.8.1.017
Sidawi B (2009) Hindrances to the financing of affordable housing in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Emirates J Eng Res 14(1):73–82
Siddiqua S, Barreto PNM (2018) Chemical stabilization of rammed earth using calcium carbide residue and fly ash. Constr Build Mater 169:364–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.209
SNZ (Standards New Zealand) (2020) NZS 4297: Engineering design of earth buildings. https://www.standards.govt.nz/shop/nzs-42972020/
Spagnoli G, Shimobe S (2020) An overview on the compaction characteristics of soils by laboratory tests. Eng Geol 278:105830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105830
Taffese WZ, Abegaz KA (2021) Artificial intelligence for prediction of physical and mechanical properties of stabilized soil for affordable housing. Appl Sci 11(16):7503. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167503
Toufigh V, Kianfar E (2019) The effects of stabilizers on the thermal and the mechanical properties of rammed earth at various humidities and their environmental impacts. Constr Build Mater 200:616–629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.050
Tripura DD, Singh KD (2015a) Characteristic properties of cement-stabilized rammed earth blocks. J Mater Civ Eng 27(7):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001170
Tripura DD, Singh KD (2015b) Characteristic properties of cement-stabilized rammed earth blocks. J Mater Civ Eng 27(7):04014214. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001170
UBC (1997) Uniform building code. International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, CA
Uliasz-Bocheńczyk A, Mokrzycki E (2020) The potential of FBC fly ashes to reduce CO2 emissions. Sci Rep 10(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66297-y
Wahab NA, Roshan MJ, Rashid ASA, Hezmi MA, Jusoh SN, Norsyahariati NDN, Tamassoki S (2021) Strength and durability of cement-treated lateritic soil. Sustainability 13(11):6430. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116430
Welton JE (2020) SEM petrology atlas. SEM Petrology Atlas. https://doi.org/10.1306/mth4442 (Issue 4)
Worldometers (2022) Saudi Arabia population. Accessed (online): 2022. Available at: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/saudi-arabia-population/
Zami MS, Ewebajo A, Al-Amoudi OSB, Al-Osta MA, Mustafa YMH (2022) Compressive strength and wetting – drying cycles of Al-Hofuf “Hamrah” soil stabilized with cement and lime. Arab J Sci Eng 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-022-06576-0
Zhu F, Li Z, Dong W, Ou Y (2019) Geotechnical properties and microstructure of lime-stabilized silt clay. Bull Eng Geol Env 78(4):2345–2354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-1307-5
Acknowledgements
This publication is based upon the work supported by King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM). The authors express their warmest gratitude to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for the opportunity to accomplish this work.
Funding
The authors at KFUPM received support from the Deanship of Research Oversight and Coordination (DROC), under Grant No. IN-171030.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mustafa, Y.M.H., Al-Amoudi, O.S.B., Zami, M.S. et al. Strength and durability assessment of stabilized Najd soil for usage as earth construction materials. Bull Eng Geol Environ 82, 55 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03075-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03075-w