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Evidence for diversification of Calophyllum L. (Calophyllaceae) in the Neogene Siwalik forests of eastern Himalaya

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Abstract

Here, we report fossil leaves, woods, and pollen grains comparable to Calophyllum L. (mainly to Calophyllum inophyllum L. and Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy) of Calophyllaceae from the upper (Kimin Formation, late Pliocene-early Pleistocene), middle (Subansiri Formation, Pliocene) Siwalik sediments of the Arunachal sub-Himalaya, and lower (Gish Clay Formation of Sevok Group; middle to late Miocene) Siwalik sediments of the Darjeeling foothills, eastern Himalaya. Their presence indicates a warm and humid tropical environment in the region during the period of Siwalik sedimentation. Considering all records of Calophyllum, it is suggested that Calophyllum was a frequent forest element throughout the period of Siwalik sedimentation during the Neogene (Miocene time). At present, C. polyanthum grows in the eastern Himalaya, but C. inophyllum is totally absent from north-eastern regions suggesting differential adaptability of these taxa to changing ecoclimatic conditions. Distinct climate change in the area, possibly related to the Himalayan Orogeny during Miocene–Pleistocene times, might have caused the disappearance of C. inophyllum from the entire eastern Himalaya and north-east Indian plains and a move to littoral/coastal and swampy forests of India and other adjoining south-east Asian regions, Polynesia, and the east coast of Africa. The past global distribution of Calophyllum is also discussed, and it is suggested that India may have been its primary centre of origin. This is the first time Cenozoic fossil leaves Calophyllum siwalikum Khan, R.A.Spicer & Bera, sp. nov. comparable to C. inophyllum are described using the both macro- and micromorphological characters.

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Acknowledgements

The Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi (SR/S4/ES-67/2003), is acknowledged for financial assistance. We are also thankful to Sri Bimalendu De, Ex Dy. D.G. and Sri Sambhu Chakrabarty, Sr. Geologist, Geological Survey of India, Operation Arunachal, Itanagar for help and cooperation during collection of fossil specimens. Thanks are due to the authorities of Central National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah for permission to consult the Herbarium.

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  1. Department of Botany, Centre of Advanced Study, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, India

    Mahasin A. Khan & Subir Bera

  2. Environment, Earth and Ecosystems, Centre for Earth, Planetary, Space and Astronomical Research, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK

    Robert A. Spicer

  3. Institute of Botany, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20 Nanxincun, Xiangshan, Beijing, 100093, China

    Robert A. Spicer & Teresa E. V. Spicer

  4. Department of Botany, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Ranchi Road, Purulia, 723104, India

    Mahasin A. Khan

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Khan, M.A., Spicer, R.A., Spicer, T.E.V. et al. Evidence for diversification of Calophyllum L. (Calophyllaceae) in the Neogene Siwalik forests of eastern Himalaya. Plant Syst Evol 303, 371–386 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-016-1376-5

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