Abstract
Microwave irradiation has been considered as a potential method for weakening rock in mining and civil engineering applications, and numerous studies have demonstrated the strength-reducing effects. SEM-based automated mineralogy provides new opportunities to examine the mineralogical controls on microwave-induced cracking. This study employed a combined approach of optical microscopy and automated mineralogical analysis of scanning electron microscopy to investigate the roles of mineralogy and texture in microwave-induced cracking of granitic rocks. Most rocks on Earth, such as granite, are composed of relatively weak microwave absorbing minerals, compared to those tested in prior investigations on ores. This study examined three types of natural granite specimens, selected for their varying proportions of weak microwave absorbers (albite, amphibole, biotite, orthoclase, and quartz), and their contrasting textures (perthitic, granophyric and oikocrystic) and grain sizes (fine and coarse grained). Microwave irradiation experiments at 3.2 kW and 2.45 GHz led to the generation of macroscopically and microscopically visible cracks and lower P-wave velocities after irradiation. The optical investigations revealed that coarse-grained (1–5 mm) granites developed extensive networks of narrow cracks; whereas, fine-grained (<1 mm) granites of similar composition developed few cracks which were comparatively wider. Quantitative assessment of the spatial relationships between these cracks and the host minerals showed that intragranular cracks developed along cleavage planes of albite and amphibole, potentially in response to thermal expansion of brittle grains. Intergranular cracking occurred adjacent to thermally conductive or highly expansive grains such as quartz and biotite. In these specimens, cracking appears to be driven by contrasts among the chemical, mineralogical, thermal and microwave properties of the constituent minerals, and strong absorbers are not essential. The limited dataset from this study suggests that granitoid rocks may be potential targets for industrial applications of microwave irradiation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ali AY, Bradshaw SM (2009) Quantifying damage around grain boundaries in microwave treated ores. Chem Eng Process 48(11–12):1566–1573
Ali AY, Bradshaw SM (2010) Bonded-particle modelling of microwave-induced damage in ore particles. Miner Eng 23(10):780–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2010.05.019
Ali AY, Bradshaw SM (2011) Confined particle bed breakage of microwave treated and untreated ores. Miner Eng 24(14):1625–1630
Barani K, Javad Koleini SM, Rezaei B (2011) Magnetic properties of an iron ore sample after microwave heating. Sep Purif Technol 76(3):331–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2010.11.001
Batchelor AR, Jones DA, Plint S, Kingman SW (2015) Deriving the ideal ore texture for microwave treatment of metalliferous ores. Miner Eng 84:116–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2015.10.007
Batchelor AR, Ferrari-John RS, Katrib J, Udoudo O, Jones DA, Dodds C, Kingman SW (2016) Pilot scale microwave sorting of porphyry copper ores: Part 1–laboratory investigations. Miner Eng 98:303–327
Campbell MJ, Ulrichs J (1969) Electrical properties of rocks and their significance for lunar radar observations. J Geophys Res 74(25):5867–5881
Čermák V, Rybach L (1982) Thermal conductivity and specific heat of minerals and rocks. In: Angenheister G (ed) Landolt-Börnstein: numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology, new series, group V (geophysics and space research), volume Ia (physical properties of rocks). Springer, Berlin, pp 305–343
Chen TT, Dutrizac JE, Haque KE, Wyslouzil W, Kashyap S (1984) The relative transparency of minerals to microwave radiation. Can Metall Q 23(3):349–351
Church RH, Webb WE, and Salsman J (1988) Dielectric properties of low-loss minerals. US Bureau of Mines Investigation Report 9194
Darot M, Reuschlé T (2000) Acoustic wave velocity and permeability evolution during pressure cycles on a thermally cracked granite. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 37(7):1019–1026. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365-1609(00)00034-4
Didenko AN, Zverev BV, Prokopenko AV (2005) Microwave fracturing and grinding of solid rocks by example of kimberlite. Dokl Phys 50(7):349–350
Ford JD, Pei DCT (1967) High temperature chemical processing via microwave absorption. J Microw Power 2(2):61–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222739.1967.11688647
Gross E, Heinrich E (1965) Petrology and mineralogy of the Mount Rosa area, El Paso and Teller counties Colorado I: the granites. Am Mineral 50:1273–1295
Guo SH, Chen G, Peng JH, Chen J, Li DB, Liu LJ (2011) Microwave assisted grinding of ilmenite ore. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China English Ed 21(9):2122–2126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(11)60983-7
Haalck H (1958) Lehrbuch der angewandten Geophysik. Gebr, Borntraeger
Harrison PC (1997) A fundamental study of the heating effect of 2.45 GHz microwave radiation on minerals. Dissertation, University of Birmingham
Hartlieb P, Grafe B (2017) Experimental study on microwave assisted hard rock cutting of granite. BHM Berg- Und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte 162:77–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00501-016-0569-0
Hartlieb P, Leindl M, Kuchar F, Antretter T, Moser P (2012) Damage of basalt induced by microwave irradiation. Miner Eng 31:82–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2012.01.011
Hartlieb P, Toifl M, Kuchar F, Meisels R, Antretter T (2016) Thermo-physical properties of selected hard rocks and their relation to microwave-assisted comminution. Miner Eng 91:34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2015.11.008
Hartlieb P, Kuchar F, Moser P, Kargl H, Restner U (2018) Reaction of different rock types to low-power (3. 2 kW ) microwave irradiation in a multimode cavity. Miner Eng 118:37–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2018.01.003
Heiland GA (1951) Resistivities and dielectric constants of minerals, ores, rocks and formations. Geophysical Exploration. Prentice-Hall Inc, New York
Hidnert P, Dickson G (1945) Some physical properties of mica. J Res Natl Bur Stand 1945(35):309–353
Jerby E, Meir Y, and Faran M (2013). Basalt melting by localized-microwave thermal- runaway instability. In: 14th International conference on microwave and high frequency heating. AMPERE 2013. Nottingham, UK, September 2013, pp 255–258
Jones AD, Kingman WS, Whittles ND, Lowndes SI (2005) Understanding microwave assisted breakage. Miner Eng 18(7):659–669
Jones DA, Kingman SW, Whittles DN, Lowndes IS (2007) The influence of microwave energy delivery method on strength reduction in ore samples. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 46(4):291–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2006.06.009
Keller JB, Karal FC Jr (1966) Effective dielectric constant, permeability, and conductivity of a random medium and the velocity and attenuation coefficient of coherent waves. J Math Phys 4:661–670
Kingman SW, Vorster W, Rowson NA (2000) Influence of mineralogy on microwave assisted grinding. Miner Eng 13(3):313–327
Kingman WS, Jackson K, Cumbane A, Bradshaw SM, Rowson NA, Greenwood R (2004) Recent developments in microwave-assisted comminution. Int J Miner Process 74(1–4):71–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2003.09.006
Li H, Lin B, Yang W, Zheng C, Hong Y, Gao Y, Tong L, Wu S (2016) Experimental study on the petrophysical variation of different rank coals with microwave treatment. Int J Coal Geol 154–155:82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2015.12.010
Li X, Wang S, Xu Y, Yao W, Xia K, Lu G (2019) Effect of microwave irradiation on dynamic mode-Ι fracture parameters of Barre granite. Eng Fract Mech 224:106748
Lu GM, Li YH, Hassani F, Zhang X (2017) The influence of microwave irradiation on thermal properties of main rock-forming minerals. Appl Therm Eng 112:1523–1532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.11.015
Meisels R, Toifl M, Hartlieb P, Kuchar F, Antretter T (2015) Microwave propagation and absorption and its thermo-mechanical consequences in heterogeneous rocks. Int J Miner Process 135:40–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2015.01.003
Menéndez B, David C, Darot M (1999) A study of the crack network in deformed granite samples using confocal scanning laser microscopy. Phys Chem Earth A 24(7):627–632
Nelson SO, Lindroth DP, Blake RL (1989) Dielectric properties of selected and purified minerals at 1 to 22 GHz. J Microw Power Electromagn Energy 24:213–220
Nicco M, Holley EA, Hartlieb P, Kaunda R, Nelson PP (2018) Methods for characterizing cracks induced in rock. Rock Mech Rock Eng 51(7):2075–2093
Oberti R, Boiocchi M, Zema M et al (2018) The high-temperature behaviour of riebeckite: expansivity, deprotonation, selective Fe oxidation and a novel cation disordering scheme for amphiboles. Eur J Miner 30(3):437–449
Omran M, Fabritius T, Elmahdy AM, Abdel-Khalek NA, El-Aref M, Elmanawi AEH (2014) Effect of microwave pre-treatment on the magnetic properties of iron ore and its implications on magnetic separation. Sep Purif Technol 136:223–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2014.09.011
Parkhomenko EI (1967) Electrical properties of rocks. Plenum, New York
Peinsitt T, Kuchar F, Hartlieb P, Moser P, Kargl H, Restner U, Sifferlinger N (2010) Microwave heating of dry and water saturated basalt, granite and sandstone. Int J Min Miner Eng 2(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMME.2010.031810
Persson P (2017) The geochemical and mineralogical evolution of the Mount Rosa Complex, El Paso County, Colorado, USA. Dissertation, Colorado School of Mines
Prewitt CT, Sueno S, Papike JJ (1976) The crystal structures of high albite and monalbite at high temperatures. Am Miner 61(11–12):1213–1225
Reinosa JJ, García-Baños B, Catalá-Civera JM, Fernández JF (2019) A step ahead on efficient microwave heating for kaolinite. Appl Clay Sci 168:37–243
Ritter HL, Drake LC (1945) Pore-size distribution in porous materials pressure porosimeter and determination of complete macropore-size distributions. Ind Eng Chem Anal 17:782–786
Rizmanoski V (2011) The effect of microwave pretreatment on impact breakage of copper ore. Miner Eng 24(14):1609–1618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2011.08.017
Robinson J, Binner E, Saeid A, Al-Harahsheh M, Kingman S (2014) Microwave processing of Oil Sands and contribution of clay minerals. Fuel 135:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.06.057
Robertson EC (1988) Thermal properties of rocks. US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey Open File Report 88-441
Salsman JB, Williamson RL, Tolley WK, Rice DA (1996) Short-pulse microwave treatment of disseminated sulfide ores. Miner Eng 9(1):43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0892-6875(95)00130-1
Scott, G (2006) Microwave pretreatment of a low-grade copper ore to enhance milling performance and liberation. Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch
Scott G, Bradshaw SM, Eksteen JJ (2008) The effect of microwave pretreatment on the liberation of a copper carbonatite ore after milling. Int J Miner Process 85(4):121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2007.08.005U6
Shannon RD, Subramanian MA, Hosoya S, Rossman GR (1991) Dielectric constants of tephroite, fayalite and olivine and the oxide additivity rule. Phys Chem Miner 18:1–6
Shannon RD, Oswald RA, Rossman GR (1992) Dielectric constants of topaz, orthoclase and scapolite and the oxide additivity rule. Phys Chem Miner 19:166–170
Singh V, Tripathy SK (2017) Comparative analysis of the effect of microwave pretreatment on the milling and liberation characteristics of mineral matters of different. Miner Metall Proc 34(2):65–76
Skinner BJ (1966) Thermal expansion. Handbook of physical constants, revised edition, vol 97. Geological Society of America. Inc. Memoir, pp 76–96
Somani A, Nandi TK, Pal SK, Majumder AK (2017) Pre-treatment of rocks prior to comminution—a critical review of present practices. Int J Min Sci Technol 27(2):339–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2017.01.013
Sone H, and Condon KJ (2017) Ductile behavior of thermally-fractured granite rocks. In: 51st US rock mechanics/geomechanics symposium ARMA, pp 17–443
Toifl M, Meisels R, Hartlieb P, Kuchar F, Antretter T (2016) 3D numerical study on microwave induced stresses in inhomogeneous hard rocks. Miner Eng 90:29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2016.01.001
Toifl M, Hartlieb P, Meisels R, Antretter T, Kuchar F (2017) Numerical study of the influence of irradiation parameters on the microwave-induced stresses in granite. Miner Eng 103–104:78–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2016.09.011
Underwood EE (1970) Quantitative stereology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8693-7_3
Walkiewicz JW, Clark AE, McGill SL (1991) Microwave-assisted grinding. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 27(2):239–243. https://doi.org/10.1109/28.73604
Whittles D, Kingman SW, Reddish D (2003) Application of numerical modelling for prediction of the influence of power density on microwave-assisted breakage. Int J Miner Process 68(1–4):71–91
Wang HF, Bonner BP, Carlson SR, Kowallis BJ, Heard HC (1989) Thermal stress cracking in granite. J Geophys Res 94(B2):1745. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB094iB02p01745
Wang Y, Djordjevic N (2014) Thermal stress FEM analysis of rock with microwave energy. Int J Miner Process 130:74–81
Wang HF, Simmons G (1978) Microcracks in crystalline rock from 5.3 km depth in the Michigan Basin. J Geophys Res 83(B12):5849–5856
Wang G, Radzeszewski P, Ouellet J (2008) Particle modeling simulation of thermal effects on ore breakage. Comput Mater Sci 43(4):892–901
Webb P (2001) An introduction to the physical characterization of materials by mercury intrusion porosimetry with emphasis on reduction and presentation of experimental data. https://doi.org/10.1177/004057368303900411
Wei W, Shao Z, Zhang Y, Qiao R, Gao J (2019) Fundamentals and applications of microwave energy in rock and concrete processing-a review. Appl Therm Eng 10:113751
Zheng Y (2017) Fracturing of hard rocks by microwave treatment and potential applications in mechanised tunnelling. Dissertation, University of Monash
Zhong CB, Xu CL, Lyu RL et al (2018) Enhancing mineral liberation of a Canadian rare earth ore with microwave pretreatment. J Rare Earths 36:215–224
Zhu J, Liu J, Yuan S, Cheng J, Liu Y, Wang ZH, Zhou JH, Cen KF (2016) Effect of microwave irradiation on the grinding characteristics of Ximeng lignite. Fuel Process Technol 147:2–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2015.09.030
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (CMMI award #1550307). The authors thank Jae Erickson at Colorado School of Mines for assistance with specimen preparation, as well as anonymous reviewers whose comments improved the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
This study was funded by the National Science Foundation (CMMI award #1550307).
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nicco, M., Holley, E.A., Hartlieb, P. et al. Textural and Mineralogical Controls on Microwave-Induced Cracking in Granites. Rock Mech Rock Eng 53, 4745–4765 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02189-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02189-x