Abstract
Seismic moment is a predominantly utilized parameter for assessing fault-slip potential when the numerical modelling of fault-slip is carried out. However, relying on seismic moment as an indicator for fault-slip might lead to incorrect conclusions, as fault-slip can be inherently seismic or aseismic. The present study examines the behaviour of a fault in Copper Cliff Mine, Canada, with a 3D numerical model encompassing major geological structures in the area of interest. Three types of numerical analyses are conducted, namely elastic and elasto-plastic analyses in static conditions and elasto-plastic analysis in dynamic conditions. The static analyses show that the fault most likely had undergone shear failure at the pre-mining stage. It is then demonstrated that mining activities induce further shear movements along the fault plane as well as within the fault material, as the fault is composed of thick, severely fractured materials. Notwithstanding the results, no large seismic events with Mw > 0.1 were recorded within the fault from microseismic-monitoring systems between 2006 and 2014, implying that the shear movements are aseismic and static. Furthermore, microseismic database analysis using 350,000 events that took place between 2004 and 2014 indicates that the fault is not seismically active. It is found from the dynamic analysis that the maximum slip rate during fault-slip is not more than 0.3 m/s, even when the fault-slip is simulated with an instantaneous stress drop. This result substantiates the assumption that the fault is not seismically active and shear movements are dominantly aseismic. It is therefore suggested that other factors such as stress re-distribution induced by the aseismic slip be considered in order to assess damage that could be caused by the fault movements. The present study sheds light on the importance of distinguishing aseismic from seismic fault-slip for optimizing support systems in underground mines.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ABAQUS (2003) ABAQUS online documentation: Ver 6.4-1.: Dassault Systemes, France
Alber M, Fritschen R (2011) Rock mechanical analysis of a M1 = 4.0 seismic event induced by mining in the Saar District, Germany. Geophys J Int 186:359–372
Alber M, Fritschen R, Bischoff M, Meier T (2009) Rock mechanical investigations of seismic events in a deep longwall coal mine. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 46:408–420
Altindag R, Guney A (2010) Predicting the relatinsips between brittleness and mechanical properties (UCS, TS and SH) of rocks. Sci Res Essay 5:2107–2118
Bandis S, Lumsden AC, Barton NR (1983) Fundamentals of rock joint deformation. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech 20:249–268
Barton N (1973) Review of a new shear-strength criterion for rock joints. Eng Geol 7:287–332
Bewick RP, Valley B, Runnals S, Whitney J, Krynicki Y (2009) Global approach to managing deep mining hazard. In: The 3rd CANUS rock mechanics symposium, Toronto
Bieniawski ZT (ed) (1976) Rock mass classification in rock engineering. In: Exploration for rock engineering. Balkema, Cape Town
Blake W, Hedley DGF (2003) Rockbursts case studies from North America hard-rock mines. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Littleton
Brinkmann JR (1987) Separating shock wave and gas expansion breakage mechanism. In: 2nd international symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting
Cai M (2010) Practical estimates of tensile strength and Hoek–Brown strength parameter mi of brittle rocks. Rock Mech Rock Eng 43:167–184
Cappa F, Rutqvist J (2011) Modeling of coupled deformation and permeability evolution during fault reactivation induced by deep underground injection of CO2. Int J Greenhouse Gas Control 5:336–346
Cappa F, Rutqvist J (2012) Seismic rupture and ground accelerations induced by CO2 injection in the shallow crust. Geophys J Int 190:1784–1789
Dieterich JH (1979) Modeling of rock friction1. Experimental results and constitutive equations. J Geophys Res 84:2161–2168
Dieterich JH, Kilgore B (1996) Implications of fault constitutive properties for earthquake prediction. In: Proceedings of the National academy of science, U.S.A., pp 3787–3794
ESG (2011) WaveVis. ESG solutions, Kingston
Fischer-Cripps AC, Mustafaev I (2000) Introduction to contact mechanics. Springer, New York
Gibowicz SJ, Kijko A (1994) An introduction to mining seismology. Academic Press, London
Hedley DGF (1992) Rockburst handbook for ontario hard rock mines. Ontario Mining Association, North York
Herget G (1987) Stress assumptions for underground excavations in the Canadian Shield. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 24:95–97
Hoek E (2007) Practical rock engineering, Rocscience. https://www.rocscience.com/documents/hoek/corner/Practical-Rock-Engineering-Full-Text.pdf
Hoek E, Brown ET (1997) Practical estimates of rock mass strength. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 34:1165–1186
Hoek E, Carranza-Torres C, Corkum B (2002) Hoek–Brown failure criterion—2002 edition. In: NARMS-TAC conference, 2002 Toronto, pp 267–273
Hofmann GF, Scheepers LJ (2011) Simulating fault slip areas of mining induced seismic tremors using static boundary element numerical modelling. Min Technol 120:53–64
Hudyma M, Beneteau DL (2012) Time—a key seismic source parameter. In: Hawkes C (ed) 21st Canadian rock mechanics symposium ROCKENG12—rock engineering for natural resources, 2012. The Canadian Rock Mechanics Association, pp 311–318
Ida Y (1972) Cohesive force across the tip of a longitudinal-shear crack and Griffith’s specific surface energy. J Geophys Res 77:3769–3778
ITASCA (2009) FLAC3D—fast Lagrangian analysis of continua. 4.0 edn. Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA
ITASCA Consulting Group I (2013). Kubrix Ver. 12. Itasca, Minneapolis
Kanamori H (2001) Energy budget of earthquakes and seismic efficiency. Int Geophys 76:293–305
Lizurek G, Rudziński Ł, Plesiewicz B (2015) Mining induced seismic event on inactive fault. Acta Geophys 63:176–200
Lockner DA, Byerlee JD, Kuksenko V, Ponomarev A, Sidrin A (1991) Quasi-static fault growth and shear fracture energy in granite. Nature 350:39–42
Lysmer J, Kuhlemeyer RL (1969) Finite dynamic model for infinite media. J Eng Mech 95:859–877
Marinos P, Hoek E (2001) Estimating the geotechnical properties of heterogeneous rock masses such as Flysch. Bull Eng Geol Environ 60:85–92
McGarr A (1991) Observations constraining near-source ground motion estimated from lacally recorded seismograms. J Geophys Res 96:16495–16508
McGarr A (1994) Some comparisons between mining-induced and laboratory earthquakes. PAGEOPH 142:467–489
McGarr A (2002) Control of strong ground motion of minig-induced earthquakes by the strength of the seismogenic rock mass. J S Afr Inst Min Metall 102:225–229
McNeel R & Associates (2015) Rhinoceros 3D, Version 5.0. Robert McNeel & Associates, Seattle, WA
Naoi M, Nakatani M, Otsuka K, Yabe Y, Kgarume T, Murakami O, Masakale T, Ribeiro L, Ward A, Moriya H, Kawataka H, Durrheim R, Ogasawara H (2015) Steady activity of microfractures on geological faults loaded by mining stress. Tectonophysics 649:100–114
Ohnaka M, Akatsu M, Mochizuki H, Odedra A, Tagashira F, Yamamoto Y (1997) A constitutive law for the shaer failure of rock under lithospheric conditions. Tectonophysics 277:1–27
Okubo PG, Dieterich JH (1984) Effects of physical fault properties on frictional instabilities produced on simulated faults. J Geophys Res 89:5817–5827
Ortlepp WD (2000) Observation of mining-induced faults in an intact rock mass at depth. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 37:423–426
Ortlepp WD, Stacey TR (1994) Rockburst mechanisms in tunnels and shafts. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 9:59–65
Potvin Y, Jarufe J, Wesseloo J (2010) Interpretation of seismic data and numerical modelling of fault reactivation at El Teniente, Reservas Norte sector. Min Technol 119:175–181
Ruina A (1983) Slip instability and state variable friction laws. J Geophys Res 88:10359–10370
Rutqvist J, Cappa F, Mazzoldi A, Rinaldi A (2013) Geomechanical modeling of fault response and the potential for notable seismic events during underground CO2 injection. Energy Procedia 37:4774–4784
Ryder JA (1988) Excess shear stress in the assessment of geologically hazardous situations. J S Afr Inst Min Metall 88:27–39
Sainoki A, Mitri HS (2014a) Dynamic modelling of fault slip with Barton’s shear strength model. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 67:155–163
Sainoki A, Mitri HS (2014b) Evaluation of fault-slip potential due to shearing of fault asperities. Can Geotech J 52:1417–1425
Sainoki A, Mitri HS (2015) Effect of slip-weakening distance on selected seismic source parameters of mining-induced fault-slip. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 73:115–122
Sainoki A, Mitri HS (2016) Back analysis of fault-slip in burst prone environment. J Appl Geophys 134:159–171
Sainoki A, Mitri HS, Yao M, Chinnasane D (2016) Discontinuum modelling approach for stress analysis at a seismic source: case study. Rock Mech Rock Eng 49:4749–4765
Shnorhokian S, Mitri HS, Thibodeau D (2014) A methodology for calibrating numerical models with a heterogeneous rockmass. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 70:353–367
Sjöberg J, Perman F, Quinteiro C, Malmgren L, Dahner-Lindkvist J, Boskovic M (2012) Numerical analysis of alternative mining sequences to minimise potential for fault slip rockbursting. Min Technol 121:226–235
Snelling PE, Godin L, McKinnon SD (2013) The role of geologic structure and stress in triggering remote seismicity in Creighton Mine, Sudbury, Canada. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 58:166–179
Trifu CI, Urbancic TI (1996) Fracture coalescence as a mechanism for earthquake: obsrevations based on mining induced microseismicity. Tectonophysics 261:193–207
Urbancic TI, Trifu C-I (1998) Shear zone stress release heterogeneity associated with two mining-induced events of M 1.7 and 2.2. Tectonophysics 289:75–89
Urpi L, Rinaldi A, Rutqvist J, Cappa F, Spiers C (2016) Dynamic simulation of CO2-injection-induced fault rupture with slip-rate dependent friction coefficient. Geomech Energy Environ 7:47–65
Van Gool B (2007) Effects of blasting on the stability of paste fill stopes at Cannington Mine. PhD, James Cook University
White BG, Whyatt JK (1999) Role of fault slip on mechanisms of rock burst damage, Lucky Friday Mine, Idaho, USA. In: 2nd southern african rock engineering symposium, Implementing Rock Engineering Knowledge. Johannesburg, S. Africa
Wyllie DC (2003) Foundations on rock: engineering practice, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Yabe Y, Nakatani M, Naoi M, Phillipp J, Janssen C, Watanabe T, Katsura T, Kawataka H, Georg D, Ogasawara H (2015) Nucleation process of an M2 earthquake in a deep gold mine in South Africa inferred from on-fault foreshock activity. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 120:5574–5594
Yuan F, Prakash V (2008) Use of a modified torsional Kolsky bar to study frictional slip resistance in rock-analog materials at coseismic slip rates. Int J Solids Struct 45:4247–4263
Zhang P, Yang T, Yu Q, Xu T, Zhu W, Liu H, Zhou J, Zhao Y (2015) Microseimicity induced by fault activation during the fracture process of a crown pillar. Rock Mech Rock Eng 48:1673–1682
Ziegler M, Reiter K, Heidbach O, Zang A, Kwiatek G, Stromeyer D, Dahm T, Dresen G, Hofmann G (2015) Mining-induced stress transfer and its relation to a Mw 1.9 seismic event in an ultra-deep South African gold mine. Pure Appl Geophys 172:2557–2570
Acknowledgements
This work is financially supported by a grant by the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) in partnership with Vale Ltd—Sudbury Operations, Canada, under the Collaborative Research and Development Program. The authors are grateful for their support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sainoki, A., Mitri, H.S. & Chinnasane, D. Characterization of Aseismic Fault-Slip in a Deep Hard Rock Mine Through Numerical Modelling: Case Study. Rock Mech Rock Eng 50, 2709–2729 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-017-1268-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-017-1268-1