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Human schistosomiasis in Nigeria: present status, diagnosis, chemotherapy, and herbal medicines

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Abstract

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by a parasitic, trematode blood fluke of the genus Schistosoma. With 20 million people infected, mostly due to Schistosoma haematobium, Nigeria has the highest burden of schistosomiasis in the world. We review the status of human schistosomiasis in Nigeria regarding its distribution, prevalence, diagnosis, prevention, orthodox and traditional treatments, as well as snail control strategies. Of the country’s 36 states, the highest disease prevalence is found in Lagos State, but at a geo-political zonal level, the northwest is the most endemic. The predominantly used diagnostic techniques are based on microscopy. Other methods such as antibody-based serological assays and DNA detection methods are rarely employed. Possible biomarkers of disease have been identified in fecal and blood samples from patients. With respect to preventive chemotherapy, mass drug administration with praziquantel as well as individual studies with artemisinin or albendazole have been reported in 11 out of the 36 states with cure rates between 51.1 and 100%. Also, Nigerian medicinal plants have been traditionally used as anti-schistosomal agents or molluscicides, of which Tetrapleura tetraptera (Oshosho, aridan, Aidan fruit), Carica papaya (Gwanda, Ìbẹ́pẹ, Pawpaw), Borreria verticillata (Karya garma, Irawo-ile, African borreria), and Calliandra portoricensis (Tude, Oga, corpse awakener) are most common in the scientific literature. We conclude that the high endemicity of the disease in Nigeria is associated with the limited application of various diagnostic tools and preventive chemotherapy efforts as well as poor knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP). Nonetheless, the country could serve as a scientific base in the discovery of biomarkers, as well as novel plant-derived schistosomicides and molluscicides.

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Acknowledgements

MAI is a recipient of the National Research Foundation grant (NRF 2020/SETI/43) and Institutional Based Grant (DAPM/TETFUND/01/12) from the Tertiary Education Fund (TetFund). EOB is a recipient of Terumo Life Science Foundation, Japan and Emerging Global Leader (K43) award supported by the Fogarty International Center of the National Institute of Health (K43TW012015). The content of this manuscript is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Funding

Mr. Umar Saidu received funding for his studies from the African Center of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology during which the review was written, as part of his studies.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria

    Umar Saidu, Mohammed Auwal Ibrahim & Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun

  2. Africa Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

    Umar Saidu, Mohammed Auwal Ibrahim & Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun

  3. Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

    Harry P. de Koning

  4. Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC0657, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA

    James H. McKerrow, Conor R. Caffrey & Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun

  5. Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan

    Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun

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M. A. I., E. O. B., and U. S. conceived the review, while U. S. and M. A. I. conducted the literature search. M. A. I., U. S., E. O. B., C. R. C., J. H. M., and H. K. wrote and edited the final manuscript.

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Saidu, U., Ibrahim, M.A., de Koning, H.P. et al. Human schistosomiasis in Nigeria: present status, diagnosis, chemotherapy, and herbal medicines. Parasitol Res 122, 2751–2772 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07993-2

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