Abstract
Introduction
While the performance of a thyroidectomy is generally associated with a low risk of injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN), the presence of a non-recurrent nerve (NRLN) increases the risk of this complication. Generally, the intraoperative detection via visual appreciation of variant anatomy of the RLN has been regarded as poor, possibly due to a lack of knowledge of both the normal and aberrant anatomy of the RLN.
Materials and methods
Articles for the review were searched through PubMed using the search terms and their combinations: “non-recurrent laryngeal nerve,” “thyroidectomy,” “injury,” “palsy,” “variant anatomy,” and “residency,” from January 1, 2000, to December 2022. Papers considered for the review were the articles published in English, with additional classic and articles of surgical importance retrieved from the reference list of papers. Only papers relevant to the scope of the review were considered for this review.
Findings
The NRLN has been found to be associated with concurrent vascular abnormalities, such as the presence of an aberrant right subclavian artery (ARSA) or an arteria lusoria originating from the aortic arch. However, it seems that both the normal as well as aberrant anatomy of the RLN is currently not emphasized enough during postgraduate surgical training. With the increased use of intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM), detection of NRLN has become possible through appropriate neural mapping during thyroid surgery, besides other pointers such as visualization during surgery, computerised tomography, and duplex ultrasound scans to visualize the variant vascular anatomy. There is also a possible role for cadaveric courses, either during medical school or in a post-graduate setting—adapted to the student’s level to teach the variant anatomy. With the development of newer techniques such as artificial intelligence, there are potential new options for teaching and training anatomy in the near future.
Conclusions and relevance
Adequate knowledge of the normal and aberrant anatomy of the RLN remains essential for the best outcomes in thyroid surgery, even in the era of the IONM. Moving forward, the knowledge of (aberrant) anatomy should be made an integral part of the core competencies of both medical students and surgical trainees. It is imperative that leaders of the different field work closely together to combine their knowledge towards providing their trainees with the best possible training options.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Sun GH, DeMonner S, Davis MM (2013) Epidemiological and economic trends in inpatient and outpatient thyroidectomy in the United States, 1996-2006. Thyroid 23:727–733
Gray WK, Aspinall S, Tolley N et al (2021) The volume and outcome relationship for thyroidectomy in England. Langenbecks Arch Surg 406:1999–2010
Al-Qurayshi Z, Robins R, Hauch A et al (2016) Association of surgeon volume with outcomes and cost savings following thyroidectomy: a national forecast. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 142:32–39
Tan BKJ, Raghupathy J, Song H et al (2022) Trainee participation does not adversely affect the safety of thyroid surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis. Head Neck 44:262–274
Reeve T, Thompson NW (2000) Complications of thyroid surgery: how to avoid them, how to manage them, and observations on their possible effect on the whole patient. World J Surg 24:971–975
Miccoli P, Terris DJ, Minuto MN et al (2013) Thyroid surgery: preventing and managing complications. Wiley
Walsh J (1926) Galen’s discovery and promulgation of the function of the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Ann Med Hist 8:176–184
Gray SW, Skandalakis JE, Akin JT Jr (1976) Embryological considerations of thyroid surgery: developmental anatomy of the thyroid, parathyroids and the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Am Surg 42:621–628
Steinberg JL, Khane GJ, Fernandes CM et al (1986) Anatomy of the recurrent laryngeal nerve: a redescription. J Laryngol Otol 100:919–927
Stedman GW (1823) A singular distribution of some of the nerves and arteries in the neck, and the top of the thorax. Edinb Med Surg J 19:564–565
Henry JF, Audiffret J, Denizot A et al (1988) The nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve: review of 33 cases, including two on the left side. Surgery 104:977–984
Bakalinis E, Makris I, Demesticha T et al (2018) Non-Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve and Concurrent Vascular Variants: A Review. Acta Med Acad 47:186–192
Asherson N (1979) David Bayford. His syndrome and sign of dysphagia lusoria. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 61:63–67
Arkin A (1936) Double aortic arch with total persistence of the right and isthmus stenosis of the left arch: a new clinical and X-ray picture: Report of six cases in adults. Am. Heart J. 11:444–474
Nagayama I, Okabe Y, Katoh H et al (1994) Importance of pre-operative recognition of the nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve. J Laryngol Otol 108:417–419
Guerreiro S, Lamas M, Candeias H et al (2014) The non-recurrent laryngeal nerve: an anatomical “trap”. Revista Portuguesa de Endocrinologia, Diabetes e Metabolismo, p 9
Wang Y, Ji Q, Li D et al (2011) Preoperative CT diagnosis of right nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve. Head Neck 33:232–238
Toniato A, Mazzarotto R, Piotto A et al (2004) Identification of the nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid surgery: 20-year experience. World J. Surg. 28:659–661
Wang T, Dionigi G, Zhang D et al (2018) Diagnosis, anatomy, and electromyography profiles of 73 nonrecurrent laryngeal nerves. Head & Neck 40:2657–2663
Abadin SS, Kaplan EL, Angelos P (2010) Malpractice litigation after thyroid surgery: the role of recurrent laryngeal nerve injuries, 1989-2009. Surgery 148:718–722 discussion 722-713
Rosenthal LH, Benninger MS, Deeb RH (2007) Vocal fold immobility: a longitudinal analysis of etiology over 20 years. Laryngoscope 117:1864–1870
Lynch J, Parameswaran R (2017) Management of unilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve injury after thyroid surgery: A review. Head Neck 39:1470–1478
Lo CY, Kwok KF, Yuen PW (2000) A prospective evaluation of recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis during thyroidectomy. Arch Surg 135:204–207
Cotero VE, Siclovan T, Zhang R et al (2012) Intraoperative fluorescence imaging of peripheral and central nerves through a myelin-selective contrast agent. Mol Imaging Biol 14:708–717
Raikos A, Smith JD (2015) Anatomical variations: how do surgical and radiology training programs teach and assess them in their training curricula? Clin. Anat. 28:717–724
Deshmukh S, Verde F, Johnson PT et al (2014) Anatomical variants and pathologies of the vermix. Emerg Radiol 21:543–552
Abdalla S, Pierre S, Ellis H (2013) Calot's triangle. Clin Anat 26:493–501
Kowalczyk KA, Majewski A (2021) Analysis of surgical errors associated with anatomical variations clinically relevant in general surgery Review of the literature. Transl. Res. Anat. 23:100107
Cahill DR, Leonard RJ (1999) Missteps and masquerade in American medical academe: clinical anatomists call for action. Clin Anat 12:220–222
Morrison MP, Postma GN, The Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (2013) In: Thyroid Surgery, p. 219-225
Iacobone M, Citton M, Pagura G et al (2015) Increased and safer detection of nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve after preoperative ultrasonography. Laryngoscope 125:1743–1747
Pauleau G, Goin G, Cazeres C et al (2015) Thyroid surgery applicable in developing countries. Med Sante Trop 25:23–28
Garcia M (1881) On the invention of the laryngoscopeTransactions of the international medical congress, seventh session. International Medical Congress, London, UK, pp 197–199
Wheeler MH (1998) The technique of thyroidectomy. J R Soc Med 91(Suppl 33):12–16
Sewefy AM, Tohamy TA, Esmael TM et al (2017) Intra-capsular total thyroid enucleation versus total thyroidectomy in treatment of benign multinodular goiter. A prospective randomized controlled clinical trial. Int J Surg 45:29–34
Padur AA, Kumar N, Guru A, et al (2016) Safety and Effectiveness of Total Thyroidectomy and Its Comparison with Subtotal Thyroidectomy and Other Thyroid Surgeries: A Systematic Review. J Thyroid Res 2016:7594615-7594616
Lefevre JH, Tresallet C, Leenhardt L et al (2007) Reoperative surgery for thyroid disease. Langenbecks Arch Surg 392:685–691
Wijerathne S, Goh X, Parameswaran R (2019) Ipsilateral nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve palsy and delayed palsy of the contralateral recurrent laryngeal nerve in a case of third-time reoperative thyroid surgery. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 101:e55–e58
Simó R, Nixon IJ, Rovira A et al (2021) Immediate intraoperative repair of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid surgery. Laryngoscope 131:1429–1435
Lahey FH, Hoover WB (1938) Injuries to the recurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid operations: their management and avoidance. Ann Surg 108:545–562
Chiang FY, Lu IC, Chen HC et al (2010) Anatomical variations of recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid surgery: how to identify and handle the variations with intraoperative neuromonitoring. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 26:575–583
Flisberg K, Lindholm T (1969) Electrical stimulation of the human recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid operation. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 263:63–67
Sinclair CF, Kamani D, Randolph GW (2019) The evolution and progress of standard procedures for intraoperative nerve monitoring. Ann Thyroid 4:1
Leong DCW, Lo J, Ryan S et al (2020) Intraoperative nerve monitoring in endocrine surgery: prevalence and reasons for its use in Australia and New Zealand. ANZ J. Surg. 90:867–871
Bai B, Chen W (2018) Protective effects of intraoperative nerve monitoring (IONM) for recurrent laryngeal nerve injury in thyroidectomy: meta-analysis. Sci Rep 8:7761
Cirocchi R, Arezzo A, D'Andrea V et al (2019) Intraoperative neuromonitoring versus visual nerve identification for prevention of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury in adults undergoing thyroid surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:Cd012483
Henry BM, Graves MJ, Vikse J et al (2017) The current state of intermittent intraoperative neural monitoring for prevention of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury during thyroidectomy: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review of overlapping meta-analyses. Langenbecks Arch Surg 402:663–673
Deshmukh A, Thomas AE, Dhar H et al (2022) Seeing is not believing: intraoperative nerve monitoring (IONM) in the thyroid surgery. Indian J Surg Oncol 13:121–132
Brauckhoff M, Walls G, Brauckhoff K et al (2002) Identification of the non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve using intraoperative neurostimulation. Langenbecks Arch Surg 386:482–487
Randolph GW, Kamani D, Wu C-W, et al, 36 - Surgical anatomy and monitoring of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (2021) In: Randolph GW (ed) Surgery of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands (Third Edition), Elsevier, p. 326-359.e310
Donatini G, Carnaille B, Dionigi G (2013) Increased detection of non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve (NRLN) during thyroid surgery using systematic intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM). World J Surg 37:91–93
Gao EL, Zou X, Zhou YH et al (2014) Increased prediction of right nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid surgery using preoperative computed tomography with intraoperative neuromonitoring identification. World J Surg Oncol 12:262
Kamani D, Potenza AS, Cernea CR et al (2015) The nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve: anatomic and electrophysiologic algorithm for reliable identification. Laryngoscope 125:503–508
Hermans R, Dewandel P, Debruyne F et al (2003) Arteria lusoria identified on preoperative CT and nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve during thyroidectomy: a retrospective study. Head Neck 25:113–117
Niu ZX, Zhang H, Chen LQ et al (2017) Preoperative computed tomography diagnosis of non-recurrent laryngeal nerve in patients with esophageal carcinoma. Thorac Cancer 8:46–50
Watanabe A, Kawabori S, Osanai H et al (2001) Preoperative computed tomography diagnosis of non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve. Laryngoscope 111:1756–1759
Lee YS, Son EJ, Chang HS et al (2011) Computed tomography is useful for preoperative identification of nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid cancer patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 145:204–207
Cai Q, Guan Z, Huang X et al (2013) The usefulness of preoperative computed tomography and intraoperative neuromonitoring identification of the nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 270:2135–2140
Devèze A, Sebag F, Hubbard J et al (2003) Identification of patients with a non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve by duplex ultrasound of the brachiocephalic artery. Surg Radiol Anat 25:263–269
Iacobone M, Viel G, Zanella S et al (2008) The usefulness of preoperative ultrasonographic identification of nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve in neck surgery. Langenbecks Arch Surg 393:633–638
Tartaglia F, Blasi S, Tromba L et al (2011) Duplex ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging of the supra-aortic arches in patients with non recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve: a comparative study. G Chir 32:245–250
Yetisir F, Salman AE, Çiftçi B et al (2012) Efficacy of ultrasonography in identification of non-recurrent laryngeal nerve. Int J Surg 10:506–509
Yang J, Yan SP, Gong YP et al (2014) The value of chest X-ray and cervical vascular ultrasound in predicting the presence of non-recurrent laryngeal nerves. Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 45:1036–1039
Cheng PC, Cheng PW, Liao LJ (2020) Ultrasonographic sign of the nonrecurrent laryngeal nerve. J Med Ultrasound 28:48–49
Kiss P (2018) Where variations are most important: How to teach human anatomy to medical students. Int J Anat Var 11(2):73-74
Tjalma WA, Degueldre M, Van Herendael B et al (2013) Postgraduate cadaver surgery: an educational course which aims at improving surgical skills. Facts Views Vis Obgyn 5:61–65
Juo YY, Hanna C, Chi Q et al (2018) Mixed-method evaluation of a cadaver dissection course for general surgery interns: an innovative approach for filling the gap between gross anatomy and the operating room. J Surg Educ 75:1526–1534
Selcuk İ, Tatar I, Huri E (2019) Cadaveric anatomy and dissection in surgical training. Turk J Obstet Gynecol 16:72–75
Sharma G, Aycart MA, O'Mara L et al (2018) A cadaveric procedural anatomy simulation course improves video-based assessment of operative performance. J Surg Res 223:64–71
He Y, Li Z, Yang Y et al (2021) Preoperative visualized ultrasound assessment of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in thyroid cancer surgery: reliability and risk features by imaging. Cancer Manag Res 13:7057–7066
Gong J, Holsinger FC, Noel JE et al (2021) Using deep learning to identify the recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroidectomy. Sci Rep 11:14306
Sato K, Fujita T, Matsuzaki H et al (2022) Real-time detection of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in thoracoscopic esophagectomy using artificial intelligence. Surg Endosc 36:5531–5539
Stewart GR, Mountain JC, Colcock BP (2005) Non-Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve. Br. J. Surg. 59:379–381
Defechereux T, Albert V, Alexandre J et al (2000) The inferior non recurrent laryngeal nerve: a major surgical risk during thyroidectomy. Acta Chir Belg 100:62–67
Barczyński M, Stopa M, Konturek A et al (2016) The overwhelming majority but not all motor fibers of the bifid recurrent laryngeal nerve are located in the anterior extralaryngeal branch. World J Surg 40:629–635
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Rajeev Parameswaran: Conceptualization, review and revision of the manuscript. Victoria Meijia Zheng, Reshma Rajeev, and Dinesh Kunar Sreenivasan—literature review of variant anatomy and draft of the manuscript. Mechteld Christine de Jong and Diluk Pinto—review of teaching and assessment of variant anatomy, evaluation of pointers to help detect NRLN, and draft of manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zheng, V., Rajeev, R., Pinto, D. et al. Variant anatomy of non-recurrent laryngeal nerve: when and how should it be taught in surgical residency?. Langenbecks Arch Surg 408, 185 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00423-023-02928-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00423-023-02928-y