Abstract
Introduction
Newly developed wearable fabric sensors (WFS) can increase the ease and accuracy of sweat sodium measurements by performing simultaneous sampling and analysis on the body during exercise.
Purpose
Determine the accuracy of a WFS for measurement of sodium concentration in sweat. METHODS: Subjects wore a WFS prototype and sweat collectors on their forearm during cycle ergometry. Subjects exercised at a moderate intensity (~ 65% heart rate reserve) for 30–60 min. Sweat samples were collected and analyzed using a commercial sweat sodium analyzer (SSA) every 10–15 min. WFS were adhered with an armband and connected to custom built electronics. Accuracy was determined by comparing predicted WFS concentration to the actual concentration from the commercial SSA and analyzed statistically using ANOVA and Bland−Altman plots.
Results
A total of 19 subjects completed the study. The average sweat sodium concentration was 59 mM ± 22 mM from a SSA compared with 54 mM ± 22 mM from the WFS. Overall, the average accuracy of the WFS was 88% in comparison to the SSA with p = 0.45. A line of best fit comparing predicted versus actual sweat sodium concentration had a slope of 0.99, intercept of – 4.46, and an r2 of 0.90. Bland−Altman analysis showed the average concentration difference between the WFS and the SSA was 5.35 mM, with 99% of data points between ± 1.96 times the standard deviation.
Conclusion
The WFS accurately predicted sweat sodium concentration during moderate intensity cycle ergometry. With the need for precise assessment of sodium loss, especially during long duration exercise, this novel analysis method can benefit athletes and coaches. Further research involving longer duration and more intense exercise is warranted.
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Abbreviations
- WFS:
-
Wearable fabric sensor
- SSA:
-
Sweat sodium analyzer
- rc :
-
Lin’s concordance correlation coefficients
- MAPE:
-
Mean absolute percentage error
- % NRMSE:
-
Percent normalized root mean square error
- MAE:
-
Mean absolute error
- 95% CI:
-
95% Confidence interval
- %SD:
-
Percent standard deviation
- SE:
-
Standard error over the mean
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Dunia Jaffal for providing the electrospun mats used in this work.
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This article is funded by National Science Foundation, 1843539, Chelsea Monty.
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Sensor preparation was performed by SD, HG, MPN, MSF, and KD. Data collection and analysis were performed by RO, MPN, ZC, RE, VS, and CNM. The first draft of the manuscript was written by KD and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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This work was supported by the National Science Foundation [grant number 1843539] and the Ohio Third Frontier Technology Validation and Startup Fund [grant number 20-0004]. The protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of The University of Akron and all subjects provided written informed consent (IRB Number 20180408).
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Communicated by Michael I Lindinger.
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Dyshko, K., Nicodemus, M.P., Otterstetter, R. et al. Evaluation of a wearable fabric-based sensor for accurate sodium determination in sweat during exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 124, 1347–1353 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-023-05364-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-023-05364-4