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The energy cost of swimming and its determinants

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Abstract

The energy expended to transport the body over a given distance (C, the energy cost) increases with speed both on land and in water. At any given speed, C is lower on land (e.g., running or cycling) than in water (e.g., swimming or kayaking) and this difference can be easily understood when one considers that energy should be expended (among the others) to overcome resistive forces since these, at any given speed, are far larger in water (hydrodynamic resistance, drag) than on land (aerodynamic resistance). Another reason for the differences in C between water and land locomotion is the lower capability to exert useful forces in water than on land (e.g., a lower propelling efficiency in the former case). These two parameters (drag and efficiency) not only can explain the differences in C between land and water locomotion but can also explain the differences in C within a given form of locomotion (swimming at the surface, which is the topic of this review): e.g., differences between strokes or between swimmers of different age, sex, and technical level. In this review, the determinants of C (drag and efficiency, as well as energy expenditure in its aerobic and anaerobic components) will, thus, be described and discussed. In aquatic locomotion it is difficult to obtain quantitative measures of drag and efficiency and only a comprehensive (biophysical) approach could allow to understand which estimates are “reasonable” and which are not. Examples of these calculations are also reported and discussed.

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Abbreviations

A :

Projected frontal area

AO :

Swimming with arms only

C :

Energy cost

C d :

Drag coefficient

\(\dot{E}\) :

Metabolic power

\(\dot{E}_{{\max} }\) :

Maximal metabolic power

\(\dot{E}_{\text{Aer}}\) :

Metabolic power (aerobic component)

\(\dot{E}_{\text{Anl}}\) :

Metabolic power (anaerobic lactic component)

\(\dot{E}_{\text{AnAl}}\) :

Metabolic power (anaerobic alactic component)

F d :

Hydrodynamic resistance (drag force)

F t :

Thrust force

IVV:

Intra-cyclic variations in speed

IdC:

Index of coordination

LO:

Swimming with legs only

Lab :

Blood lactate concentration

OWS:

Open water swimming

PCr:

Phosphocreatine concentration

SF:

Stroke frequency

SL:

Stroke length

T :

“Leg sinking” torque

t :

Exercise duration

v :

Swimming speed

v max :

Maximal swimming speed

\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2}\) :

Oxygen uptake

\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2{\max} }\) :

Maximal oxygen uptake

\(\dot{W}_{\text{tot}}\) :

Total mechanical power

\(\dot{W}_{\text{ext}}\) :

External mechanical power

\(\dot{W}_{\text{int}}\) :

Internal mechanical power

\(\dot{W}_{\text{d}}\) :

Drag power (mechanical power needed to overcome drag)

\(\dot{W}_{\text{k}}\) :

“Wasted” mechanical power

\(\dot{W}_{\text{t}}\) :

Thrust power (mechanical power needed to propel the body forward)

WS:

Swimming the whole stroke

η O :

Overall efficiency

η P :

Propelling efficiency

η d :

Drag efficiency

η F :

Froude efficiency

η H :

Hydraulic efficiency

ρ :

Water density

τ :

Time constant

3D:

Three-dimensional

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Via Felice Casorati 43, 37131, Verona, Italy

    Paola Zamparo

  2. Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

    Matteo Cortesi & Giorgio Gatta

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  1. Paola Zamparo
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  2. Matteo Cortesi
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  3. Giorgio Gatta
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PZ conceptualized and wrote the manuscript. MC and GG performed the literature search and critically revised the work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Zamparo, P., Cortesi, M. & Gatta, G. The energy cost of swimming and its determinants. Eur J Appl Physiol 120, 41–66 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-019-04270-y

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