Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Intake of fish and long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and incidence of metabolic syndrome among American young adults: a 25-year follow-up study

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
European Journal of Nutrition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Studies suggest that long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCω3PUFA) intake and its primary food source—fish—may have beneficial effects on the individual components of metabolic syndrome (MetS). We examined the longitudinal association between fish or LCω3PUFA intake and MetS incidence.

Methods

We prospectively followed 4356 American young adults, free from MetS and diabetes at baseline, for incident MetS and its components in relation to fish and LCω3PUFA intake. MetS was defined by the National Cholesterol Education Program/Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Cox proportional hazards model was used for analyses, controlling for socio-demographic, behavioral, and dietary factors.

Results

During the 25-year follow-up, a total of 1069 incident cases of MetS were identified. LCω3PUFA intake was inversely associated with the incidence of MetS in a dose–response manner. The multivariable adjusted hazards ratio (HR) [95 % confidence interval (CI)] of incident MetS was 0.54 (95 % CI 0.44, 0.67; P for linear trend < 0.01) as compared the highest to the lowest quintile of LCω3PUFA intake. A threshold inverse association was found between non-fried fish consumption and the incidence of MetS. The multivariable adjusted HRs (95 % CIs) from the lowest to the highest quintile were 1.00, 0.70 (0.51, 0.95), 0.68 (0.52, 0.91), 0.67 (0.53, 0.86), and 0.71 (0.56, 0.89) (P for linear trend = 0.49). The observed inverse associations were independent of the status of baseline individual components of MetS.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that intakes of LCω3PUFAs and non-fried fish in young adulthood are inversely associated with the incidence of MetS later in life.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Mozumdar A, Liguori G (2011) Persistent increase of prevalence of metabolic syndrome among U.S. adults: NHANES III to NHANES 1999–2006. Diabetes Care 34:216–219. doi:10.2337/dc10-0879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Carpentier YA, Portois L, Malaisse WJ (2006) n-3 fatty acids and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1499S–1504S

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Saravanan P, Davidson NC, Schmidt EB, Calder PC (2010) Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Lancet 376:540–550. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60445-X

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Ruidavets JB, Bongard V, Dallongeville J, Arveiler D, Ducimetière P, Perret B, Simon C, Amouyel P, Ferrières J (2007) High consumptions of grain, fish, dairy products and combinations of these are associated with a low prevalence of metabolic syndrome. J Epidemiol Community Health 61:810–817. doi:10.1136/jech.2006.052126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Kouki R, Schwab U, Hassinen M, Komulainen P, Heikkilä H, Lakka TA, Rauramaa R (2010) Food consumption, nutrient intake and the risk of having metabolic syndrome: the DR’s EXTRA Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 65:368–377. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Noel SE, Newby PK, Ordovas JM, Tucker KL (2010) Adherence to an (n-3) fatty acid/fish intake pattern is inversely associated with metabolic syndrome among Puerto Rican adults in the Greater Boston area. J Nutr 140:1846–1854. doi:10.3945/jn.110.124297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Fonseca MJ, Gaio R, Lopes C, Santos AC (2012) Association between dietary patterns and metabolic syndrome in a sample of Portuguese adults. Nutr J 11:64. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Mirmiran P, Hosseinpour-Niazi S, Naderi Z, Bahadoran Z, Sadeghi M, Azizi F (2012) Association between interaction and ratio of ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid and the metabolic syndrome in adults. Nutrition 28:856–863. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2011.11.031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Lai YH, Petrone AB, Pankow JS, Arnett DK, North KE, Ellison RC, Hunt SC, Djoussé L (2013) Association of dietary omega-3 fatty acids with prevalence of metabolic syndrome: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. Clin Nutr 32:966–969. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2013.05.002

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Baik I, Abbott RD, Curb JD, Shin C (2010) Intake of fish and n-3 fatty acids and future risk of metabolic syndrome. J Am Diet Assoc 110:1018–1026. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.04.013

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Friedman GD, Cutter GR, Donahue RP, Hughes GH, Hulley SB, Jacobs DR Jr, Liu K, Savage PJ (1988) CARDIA: study design, recruitment, and some characteristics of the examined subjects. J Clin Epidemiol 41:1105–1116

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Xun P, Hou N, Daviglus M, Liu K, Morris JS, Shikany JM, Sidney S, Jacobs DR, He K (2011) Fish oil, selenium and mercury in relation to incidence of hypertension: a 20-year follow-up study. J Intern Med 270:175–186. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2010.02338.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. McDonald A, Van Horn L, Slattery M et al (1991) The CARDIA dietary history: development, implementation, and evaluation. J Am Diet Assoc 91:1104–1112

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Liu K, Slattery M, Jacobs D Jr et al (1994) A study of the reliability and comparative validity of the cardia dietary history. Ethn Dis 4:15–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Nutrition Coordinating Center, University of Minnesota. Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR), Food and Nutrient Database. http://www.ncc.umn.edu/products/ndsr.html. Accessed 10 Nov 2014

  16. Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, Kuller LH, Burke GL, Tracy RP, Siscovick DS (2003) Cardiac benefits of fish consumption may depend on the type of fish meal consumed: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 107:1372–1377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Pereira MA, FitzerGerald SJ, Gregg EW, Joswiak ML, Ryan WJ, Suminski RR, Utter AC, Zmuda JM (1997) A collection of Physical Activity Questionnaires for health-related research. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29:S1–S205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Gunderson EP, Chiang V, Lewis CE, Catov J, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S, Wei GS, Ness R (2008) Long-term blood pressure changes measured from before to after pregnancy relative to nonparous women. Obstet Gynecol 112:1294–1302. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31818da09b

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Donahu RP, Jacobs DR, Sidney S, Wagenknecht LE, Alers JJ, Hulley SB (1989) Distribution of lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in young adults. Arteriosclerosis 9:656–664

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (2001) Executive summary of the third report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285:2486–2497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Fang J, Austin P, Tu J (2009) Test for linearity between continuous confounder and binary outcome first, run a multivariate regression analysis second. http://support.sas.com/resources/papers/proceedings09/252-2009.pdf. Accessed 10 Nov 2014

  22. He K, Rimm EB, Merchant A, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Ascherio A (2002) Fish consumption and risk of stroke in men. JAMA 288:3130–3136

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Cicero AF, Ertek S, Borghi C (2009) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: their potential role in blood pressure prevention and management. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 7(3):330–337

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Mori TA (2014) Dietary n-3 PUFA and CVD: a review of the evidence. Proc Nutr Soc 73:57–64

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Harris WS (1997) n-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr 65:1645S–1654S

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Eslick GD, Howe PR, Smith C, Priest R, Bensoussan A (2009) Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 136:4–16. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.03.092

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Oelrich B, Dewell A, Gardner CD (2013) Effect of fish oil supplementation on serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and LDL subfractions in hypertriglyceridemic adults. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 23:350–357

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Buckley JD, Howe PR (2010) Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may be beneficial for reducing obesity—a review. Nutrients 2:1212–1230. doi:10.3390/nu2121212

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Harden CJ, Dible VA, Russell JM, Garaiova I, Plummer SF, Barker ME, Corfe BM (2014) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation had no effect on body weight but reduced energy intake in overweight and obese women. Nutr Res 34:17–24. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2013.10.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Garaulet M, Pérez-Llamas F, Pérez-Ayala M, Martínez P, de Medina FS, Tebar FJ, Zamora S (2001) Site-specific differences in the fatty acid composition of abdominal adipose tissue in an obese population from a Mediterranean area: relation with dietary fatty acids, plasma lipid profile, serum insulin, and central obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 74:585–591

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Fedor D, Kelley DS (2009) Prevention of insulin resistance by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 12:138–146. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e3283218299

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Ramel A, Martinéz A, Kiely M, Morais G, Bandarra NM, Thorsdottir I (2008) Beneficial effects of long-chain n-3 fatty acids included in an energy-restricted diet on insulin resistance in overweight and obese European young adults. Diabetologia 51:1261–1268. doi:10.1007/s00125-008-1035-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Krebs JD, Browning LM, McLean NK, Rothwell JL, Mishra GD, Moore CS, Jebb SA (2006) Additive benefits of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and weight-loss in the management of cardiovascular disease risk in overweight hyperinsulinaemic women. Int J Obes 30:1535–1544. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803309

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Giacco R, Cuomo V, Vessby B, Uusitupa M, Hermansen K, Meyer BJ, Riccardi G, Rivellese AA (2007) Fish oil, insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in healthy people: is there any effect of fish oil supplementation in relation to the type of background diet and habitual dietary intake of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids? Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17:572–580

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Djoussé L, Gaziano JM, Buring JE, Lee IM (2011) Dietary omega-3 fatty acids and fish consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 93:143–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Mori TA, Woodman RJ (2006) The independent effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 9:95–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Conquer JA, Holub BJ (1996) Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects. J Nutr 126:3032–3039

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, Nordøy A (1997) Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 66:649–659

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Wei MY, Jacobson TA (2011) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid versus docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 13:474–483. doi:10.1007/s11883-011-0210-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kunesová M, Braunerová R, Hlavatý P et al (2006) The influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and very low calorie diet during a short-term weight reducing regimen on weight loss and serum fatty acid composition in severely obese women. Physiol Res 55:63–72

    Google Scholar 

  41. Russell FD, Burgin-Maunder CS (2012) Distinguishing health benefits of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Mar Drugs 10:2535–2559

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was partially supported by Grants from the NIH (R01HL081572 and R01ES021735). The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study (CARDIA) is supported by contracts HHSN268201300025C, HHSN268201300026C, HHSN268201300027C, HSN268201300028C, HHSN268201300029C, and HHSN268200900041C from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging (NIA) and an intra-agency agreement between NIA and NHLBI (AG0005). Dr. Kim Yong-Seok was supported by the Dongguk University Research Fund. The authors thank Dr. Janne Boone-Heinonen for her helpful comments. The authors also thank the other investigators and the staff of the CARDIA Study for valuable contributions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Yong-Seok Kim, Pengcheng Xun & Ka He

  2. Department of Medicine, Graduate School, Dongguk University-Seoul, Seoul, Republic of Korea

    Yong-Seok Kim

  3. Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Oakland, CA, USA

    Carlos Iribarren

  4. Department of Preventive Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

    Linda Van Horn & Kiang Liu

  5. Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Lyn Steffen

  6. Institute for Minority Health Research, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Martha L. Daviglus

  7. New York Academy of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

    David Siscovick

Authors
  1. Yong-Seok Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pengcheng Xun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Carlos Iribarren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Linda Van Horn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lyn Steffen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Martha L. Daviglus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. David Siscovick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Kiang Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Ka He
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ka He.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

None of the authors had a conflict of interest.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 20 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kim, YS., Xun, P., Iribarren, C. et al. Intake of fish and long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and incidence of metabolic syndrome among American young adults: a 25-year follow-up study. Eur J Nutr 55, 1707–1716 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0989-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0989-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation