Abstract
Cold stress dramatically constrains crop yield and limits the geographical distribution of plants. However, the mechanism underlying cold and freezing acclimation in high-altitude medicinal plants, particularly, Picrorhiza kurroa remains unknown. Here, we have used three different temperature treatments, namely 4 °C 24 h, 4 °C 7D, and − 4 °C 24 h, to induce early cold stress, one-week cold stress, and freezing stress, respectively, in P. kurroa and utilized a metabolomic approach to decipher cold stress mitigation strategy. Temperature treatment caused wilting and necrosis of leaves, decreased photochemical reflective index, increased normalized plant chlorophyll index, anthocyanin reflectance index, and flavonol reflectance index. These biochemical changes are associated with the significant expression (p < 0.05) of 171 metabolites. The multivariate analysis leads to the identification of 31 (VIP > 1) from 171 metabolites contributing significant variance between control and cold/freezing stressed tissue. Differential metabolite expression leads to the alteration of 16 metabolic pathways with an impact of more than 0.1. The key metabolic pathways participating in induced cold/freezing acclimation are biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis, starch and sucrose metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism, butanoate metabolism, and fatty acid degradation, among others. The present analysis also showed that picroside is expressed differentially under cold/freezing stress, suggesting its role in cold/freezing acclimation. Further, this study provides a platform for future research in disentangling the role of identified metabolites and metabolic pathways putatively involved in cold/freezing stress response. In addition, identified metabolites could provide a basis for elucidating the evolution of metabolic response to cold/freezing stress.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All the data presented in this manuscript are available in the supporting file of this manuscript.
References
Agrawal H, Joshi R, Gupta M (2019) Purification, identification and characterization of two novel antioxidant peptides from finger millet (Eleusine coracana) protein hydrolysate. Food Res Int 120:697–707
Albergaria ET, Oliveira AFM, Albuquerque UP (2020) The effect of water deficit stress on the composition of phenolic compounds in medicinal plants. S Afr J Bot 131:12–17
Anbualakan K, Tajul Urus NQ, Makpol S, Jamil A, Mohd Ramli ES, Md Pauzi SH, Muhammad N (2022) A Scoping Review on the Effects of Carotenoids and Flavonoids on Skin Damage Due to Ultraviolet Radiation. Nutrients 15(1):92
Carter GA (1993) Responses of leaf spectral reflectance to plant stress. Am J Bot 80(3):239–243
Chen Z, Cuin TA, Zhou M, Twomey A, Naidu BP, Shabala S (2007) Compatible solute accumulation and stress-mitigating effects in barley genotypes contrasting in their salt tolerance. J Exp Bot 58(15–16):4245–4255
Chen D, Mubeen B, Hasnain A, Rizwan M, Adrees M, Naqvi SAH et al (2022) Role of promising secondary metabolites to confer resistance against environmental stresses in crop plants: current scenario and future perspectives. Front Plant Sci 13:881032–881032
Claussen W (2005) Proline as a measure of stress in tomato plants. Plant Sci 168(1):241–248
Colinet H, Larvor V, Laparie M, Renault D (2012) Exploring the plastic response to cold acclimation through metabolomics. Funct Ecol 26(3):711–722
D’Amelia V, Docimo T, Crocoll C, Rigano MM (2021) Specialized metabolites and valuable molecules in crop and medicinal plants: the evolution of their use and strategies for their production. Genes 12(6):936
Das K, Roychoudhury A (2014) Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and response of antioxidants as ROS-scavengers during environmental stress in plants. Front Environ Sci 2:53
Du S, Cai Y, Qiu S, Hao Y, Tian K, Zou Z, Luo L (2022) Metabolic profiling of Oryza sativa L triggered by chilling stress using ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) with transcriptome analysis. J Agric Food Chem 70(50):15703–15714
Duhaze C, Gagneul D, Leport L, Larher FR, Bouchereau A (2003) Uracil as one of the multiple sources of β-alanine in Limonium latifolium, a halotolerant β-alanine betaine accumulating Plumbaginaceae. Plant Physiol Biochem 41(11–12):993–998
Dwivedi Y, Rastogi R, Garg NK, Dhawan BN (1992) Picroliv and its components kutkoside and picroside I protect liver against galactosamine-induced damage in rats. Pharmacol Toxicol 71(5):383–387
Eom SH, Ahn MA, Kim E, Lee HJ, Lee JH, Wi SH et al (2022) Plant response to cold stress: cold stress changes antioxidant metabolism in heading type kimchi cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. Pekinensis). Antioxidants 11(4):700
Evans DE (1981) Thermal acclimation in several species of stored-grain beetles. Aust J Zool 29(4):483–492
Ferreyra MLF, Serra P, Casati P (2021) Recent advances on the roles of flavonoids as plant protective molecules after UV and high light exposure. Physiol Plant 173(3):736–749
Furtauer L, Weiszmann J, Weckwerth W, Nägele T (2019) Dynamics of plant metabolism during cold acclimation. Int J Mol Sci 20(21):5411
Garvey CJ, Lenné T, Koster KL, Kent B, Bryant G (2013) Phospholipid membrane protection by sugar molecules during dehydration—insights into molecular mechanisms using scattering techniques. Int J Mol Sci 14(4):8148–8163
Genzel F, Dicke MD, Junker-Frohn LV, Neuwohner A, Thiele B, Putz A et al (2021) Impact of moderate cold and salt stress on the accumulation of antioxidant flavonoids in the leaves of two capsicum cultivars. J Agric Food Chem 69(23):6431–6443
Gu L, Hanson PJ, Post WM, Kaiser DP, Yang B, Nemani R et al (2008) The 2007 eastern US spring freeze: increased cold damage in a warming world? Bioscience 58(3):253–262
Guo Q, Li X, Niu L, Jameson PE, Zhou W (2021) Transcription-associated metabolomic adjustments in maize occur during combined drought and cold stress. Plant Physiol 186(1):677–695
Hajihashemi S, Noedoost F, Geuns JM, Djalovic I, Siddique KH (2018) Effect of cold stress on photosynthetic traits, carbohydrates, morphology, and anatomy in nine cultivars of Stevia rebaudiana. Front Plant Sci 9:1430
Hall RD, D’Auria JC, Ferreira ACS, Gibon Y, Kruszka D, Mishra P, Van de Zedde R (2022) High-throughput plant phenotyping: a role for metabolomics? Trends Plant Sci 27:549–563
Hassan MA, Xiang C, Farooq M, Muhammad N, Yan Z, Hui X et al (2021) Cold stress in wheat: plant acclimation responses and management strategies. Front Plant Sci 12:676884
Hayat S, Hayat Q, Alyemeni MN, Wani AS, Pichtel J, Ahmad A (2012) Role of proline under changing environments: a review. Plant Signal Behav 7(11):1456–1466
He J, Yao L, Pecoraro L, Liu C, Wang J, Huang L, Gao W (2022) Cold stress regulates accumulation of flavonoids and terpenoids in plants by phytohormone, transcription process, functional enzyme, and epigenetics. Crit Rev Biotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2022.2053056
Iqbal Z, Iqbal MS, Hashem A, Abd-Allah EF, Ansari MI (2021) Plant defence responses to biotic stress and its interplay with fluctuating dark/light conditions. Front Plant Sci 12:631810
Joshi R, Rana A, Gulati A (2015) Studies on quality of orthodox teas made from anthocyanin-rich tea clones growing in Kangra valley, India. Food Chem 176:357–366
Kasuga J, Hashidoko Y, Nishioka A, Yoshiba M, Arakawa K, Fujikawa S (2008) Deep supercooling xylem parenchyma cells of katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum) contain flavonol glycosides exhibiting high anti-ice nucleation activity. Plant Cell Environ 31(9):1335–1348
Kasuga J, Fukushi Y, Kuwabara C, Wang D, Nishioka A, Fujikawa E et al (2010) Analysis of supercooling-facilitating (anti-ice nucleation) activity of flavonol glycosides. Cryobiology 60(2):240–243
Katoch M, Fazli IS, Suri KA, Ahuja A, Qazi GN (2011) Effect of altitude on picroside content in core collections of Picrorhiza kurrooa from the north western Himalayas. J Nat Med 65(3):578–582
Kharb A, Chauhan RS (2021) Complexity of gene paralogues resolved in biosynthetic pathway of hepatoprotective iridoid glycosides in a medicinal herb, Picrorhiza kurroa through differential NGS transcriptomes. Mol Genet Genomics 296(4):863–876
Król A, Amarowicz R, Weidner S (2014) Changes in the composition of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of grapevine roots and leaves (Vitis vinifera L) under continuous of long-term drought stress. Acta Physiol Plant 36(6):1491–1499
Kumar R, Joshi R, Kumari M, Thakur R, Kumar D, Kumar S (2020) Elevated CO2 and temperature influence key proteins and metabolites associated with photosynthesis, antioxidant and carbon metabolism in Picrorhiza kurroa. J Proteomics 219:103755
Kumari M, Joshi R, Kumar R (2020) Metabolic signatures provide novel insights to Picrorhiza kurroa adaptation along the altitude in Himalayan region. Metabolomics 16(7):1–17
Kumari M, Pradhan UK, Joshi R, Punia A, Shankar R, Kumar R (2021) In-depth assembly of organ and development dissected Picrorhiza kurroa proteome map using mass spectrometry. BMC Plant Biol 21(1):1–18
Kumari A, Dogra V, Joshi R, Kumar S (2022) Stress-responsive cis-regulatory elements underline podophyllotoxin biosynthesis and better performance of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum under water deficit conditions. Front Plant Sci 12:751846
Kusano M, Yang Z, Okazaki Y, Nakabayashi R, Fukushima A, Saito K (2015) Using metabolomic approaches to explore chemical diversity in rice. Mol Plant 8(1):58–67
Kuwabara C, Wang D, Kasuga J, Fukushi Y, Arakawa K, Koyama T et al (2012) Freezing activities of flavonoids in solutions containing different ice nucleators. Cryobiology 64(3):279–285
Lee RE Jr (1980) Physiological adaptations of Coccinellidae to supranivean and subnivean hibernacula. J Insect Physiol 26(2):135–138
Leonard SS, Xia C, Jiang BH, Stinefelt B, Klandorf H, Harris GK, Shi X (2003) Resveratrol scavenges reactive oxygen species and effects radical-induced cellular responses. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 309(4):1017–1026
Li L, Dou N, Zhang H, Wu C (2021) The versatile GABA in plants. Plant Signaling and Behaviour 16(3):1862565
Ljubej V, Karalija E, Salopek-Sondi B, Šamec D (2021) Effects of short-term exposure to low temperatures on proline, pigments, and phytochemicals level in kale (Brassica oleracea var acephala). Horticulturae 7(10):341
Luo S, Levine RL (2009) Methionine in proteins defends against oxidative stress. FASEB J 23(2):464–472
Neuner G, Kreische B, Kaplenig D, Monitzer K, Miller R (2019) Deep supercooling enabled by surface impregnation with lipophilic substances explains the survival of overwintering buds at extreme freezing. Plant Cell Environ 42(7):2065–2074
Obata T, Fernie AR (2012) The use of metabolomics to dissect plant responses to abiotic stresses. Cell Mol Life Sci 69(19):3225–3243
Oh JY, Kim YJ, Jang MG, Joo SC, Kwon WS, Kim SY et al (2014) Investigation of ginsenosides in different tissues after elicitor treatment in Panax ginseng. J Ginseng Res 38(4):270–277
Ohler L, Niopek-Witz S, Mainguet SE, Möhlmann T (2019) Pyrimidine salvage: physiological functions and interaction with chloroplast biogenesis. Plant Physiol 180(4):1816–1828
Ozden M, Demirel U, Kahraman A (2009) Effects of proline on antioxidant system in leaves of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L) exposed to oxidative stress by H2O2. Sci Horticult 119(2):163–168
Pang Z, Chong J, Zhou G, de Lima Morais DA, Chang L, Barrette M et al (2021) MetaboAnalyst 5.0: narrowing the gap between raw spectra and functional insights. Nucleic Acids Res 49(W1):W388–W396
Partap M, Kumar P, Kumar P, Kumar D, Warghat AR (2020) Growth kinetics, metabolites production and expression profiling of picrosides biosynthetic pathway genes in the friable callus culture of Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 192(4):1298–1317
Parthasarthy A, Savka MA, Hudson AO (2019) The synthesis and role of β-alanine in plants. Front Plant Sci 10:921
Percival B, Gibson M, Leenders J, Wilson PB, Grootveld M (2020) Univariate and multivariate statistical approaches to the analysis and interpretation of NMR-based metabolomics datasets of increasing complexity. In: Wilson PB, Grootveld M (eds) Computational techniques for analytical chemistry and bioanalysis. The Royal Society of Chemistry
Peterson AC, Balloon AJ, Westphall MS, Coon JJ (2014) Development of a GC/Quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer, part II: new approaches for discovery metabolomics. Anal Chem 86(20):10044–10051
Pico J, Martínez MM, Martín MT, Gómez M (2015) Quantification of sugars in wheat flours with an HPAEC-PAD method. Food Chem 173:674–681
Ployet R, Soler M, Carocha V, Ladouce N, Alves A, Rodrigues JC et al (2018) Long cold exposure induces transcriptional and biochemical remodelling of xylem secondary cell wall in Eucalyptus. Tree Physiol 38(3):409–422
Polko JK, Kieber JJ (2019) The regulation of cellulose biosynthesis in plants. Plant Cell 31(2):282–296
Ramakrishna A, Ravishankar GA (2011) Influence of abiotic stress signals on secondary metabolites in plants. Plant Signal Behav 6:1720–1731
Ramos-Ruiz R, Martinez F, Knauf-Beiter G (2019) The effects of GABA in plants. Cogent Food Agric 5(1):1670553
Rasheed NMA, Nagaiah K, Waheed MA (2013) Recent analytical techniques in quality control of indigenous system of medicine. Ann. Phytomed 2(1):44–58
Rathore N, Thakur D, Kumar D, Chawla A, Kumar S (2021) Time-series eco-metabolomics reveals extensive reshuffling in metabolome during transition from cold acclimation to de-acclimation in an alpine shrub. Physiol Plant 173(4):1824–1840
Reimer JJ, Thiele B, Biermann RT, Junker-Frohn LV, Wiese-Klinkenberg A, Usadel B, Wormit A (2021) Tomato leaves under stress: a comparison of stress response to mild abiotic stress between a cultivated and a wild tomato species. Plant Mol Biol 107(3):177–206
Rienth M, Vigneron N, Darriet P, Sweetman C, Burbidge C, Bonghi C et al (2021) Grape berry secondary metabolites and their modulation by abiotic factors in a climate change scenario–a review. Front Plant Sci 12:643258
Schmucker T (1947) Anthocyan im Holz der Rotbuche. Naturwissenschaften 34(3):91–91
Shah SH, Kraus WE, Newgard CB (2012) Metabolomic profiling for the identification of novel biomarkers and mechanisms related to common cardiovascular diseases: form and function. Circulation 126(9):1110–1120
Sharma N, Kumar V, Chauhan RS, Sood H (2016) Modulation of picroside-I biosynthesis in grown elicited shoots of Picrorhiza kurroa In Vitro. J Plant Growth Regul 35:965–973
Sharma A, Shahzad B, Rehman A, Bhardwaj R, Landi M, Zheng B (2019) Response of phenylpropanoid pathway and the role of polyphenols in plants under abiotic stress. Molecules 24(13):2452
Sharma T, Sharma NK, Kumar P, Panzade G, Rana T, Swarnkar MK et al (2021) The first draft genome of Picrorhiza kurrooa, an endangered medicinal herb from Himalayas. Sci Rep 11(1):1–21
Sood H, Chauhan RS (2010) Biosynthesis and accumulation of a medicinal compound, Picroside-I, in cultures of Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Plant Cell Tiss Organ Cult 100:113
Stein O, Granot D (2019) An overview of sucrose synthases in plants. Front Plant Sci 10:95
Subramoniam A (2014) Present scenario, challenges and future perspectives in plant-based medicine development. Ann Phytomed. 3(1):31–36
Sun S, Fang J, Lin M, Hu C, Qi X, Chen J et al (2021) Comparative metabolomic and transcriptomic studies reveal key metabolism pathways contributing to freezing tolerance under cold stress in kiwifruit. Front Plant Sci 12:747
Szabados L, Savouré A (2010) Proline: a multifunctional amino acid. Trends Plant Sci 15(2):89–97
Talbott LD, Zeiger E (1998) The role of sucrose in guard cell osmoregulation. J Exp Bot 49:329–337
Tarkowski ŁP, Van den Ende W (2015) Cold tolerance triggered by soluble sugars: a multifaceted countermeasure. Front Plant Sci 6:203
Thakur S, Chhimwal J, Joshi R, Kumari M, Padwad Y, Kumar R (2021) Evaluating peptides of Picrorhiza kurroa and their inhibitory potential against ACE, DPP-IV, and oxidative stress. J Proteome Res 20(8):3798–3813
Valizadeh-Kamran R, Toorchi M, Mogadam M, Mohammadi H, Pessarakli M (2018) Effects of freeze and cold stress on certain physiological and biochemical traits in sensitive and tolerant barley (Hordeum vulgare) genotypes. J Plant Nutr 41(1):102–111
Veettil AV, Fares A, Awal R (2022) Winter storm Uri and temporary drought relief in the western climate divisions of Texas. Sci Total Environ 835:155336
Venkataraman K (2009) India’s Biodiversity Act 2002 and its role in conservation. Trop Ecol 50(1):23
Wang DH, Du F, Liu HY, Liang ZS (2010) Drought stress increases iridoid glycosides biosynthesis in the roots of Scrophularia ningpoensis seedlings. J Med Plants Res 4(24):2691–2699
Wang HP, Liu Y, Chen C, Xiao HB (2017) Screening specific biomarkers of herbs using a metabolomics approach: a case study of Panax ginseng. Sci Rep 7(1):1–9
Wang H, Gong M, Xin H, Tang L, Dai D, Gao Y, Liu C (2018) Effects of chilling stress on the accumulation of soluble sugars and their key enzymes in Jatropha curcas seedlings. Physiol Mol Biol Plants 24(5):857–865
Wang L, Shan T, Xie B, Ling C, Shao S, Jin P, Zheng Y (2019) Glycine betaine reduces chilling injury in peach fruit by enhancing phenolic and sugar metabolisms. Food Chem 272:530–538
Wanner LA, Junttila O (1999) Cold-induced freezing tolerance in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 120(2):391–400
Wong CY, Gamon JA (2015) Three causes of variation in the photochemical reflectance index (PRI) in evergreen conifers. New Phytol 206(1):187–195
Xu J, Chen Z, Wang F, Jia W, Xu Z (2020) Combined transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses uncover rearranged gene expression and metabolite metabolism in tobacco during cold acclimation. Sci Rep 10(1):5242
Yamazakia T, Kawamura Y, Uemura M (2009) Extracellular freezing-induced mechanical stress and surface area regulation on the plasma membrane in cold-acclimated plant cells. Plant Signal Behav 4(3):231–233
Yan L, Zeng L, Raza A, Lv Y, Ding X, Cheng Y, Zou X (2022) Inositol improves cold tolerance through inhibiting CBL1 and increasing Ca 2+ Influx in Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Front Plant Sci 13:775692–775692
Zhan X, Qian Y, Mao B (2022) Dendrobium multi-omics reveal lipid remodeling in response to freezing. Metabolites 12(12):1216
Zhang J, Luo W, Zhao Y, Xu Y, Song S, Chong K (2016) Comparative metabolomic analysis reveals a reactive oxygen species-dominated dynamic model underlying chilling environment adaptation and tolerance in rice. New Phytol 211(4):1295–1310
Zhang X, Teixeira da Silva JA, Niu M, Li M, He C, Zhao J et al (2017) Physiological and transcriptomic analyses reveal a response mechanism to cold stress in Santalum album L leaves. Sci Rep 7(1):1–18
Zhang Q, Zhai J, Shao L, Lin W, Peng C (2019) Accumulation of anthocyanins: an adaptation strategy of Mikania micrantha to low temperature in winter. Front Plant Sci 10:1049
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge Director, CSIR-IHBT for providing research infrastructure. Satyakam is thankful to UGC for providing research fellowship. The manuscript has CSIR-IHBT publication number: 5254.
Funding
We thankful to DST-SERB (Grant, ECR/2017/000771/LS) and CSIR (Grant, MLP-201) for providing funds to support this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
RK conceived and designed the research work. Satyakam conducted the experiments. RK, RJ and Satyakam analyzed the data. RK and Satyakam wrote the manuscript. All authors edited and approved the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Additional information
Handling Editor: Showkat Kanie.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
344_2023_10961_MOESM2_ESM.xls
Table S1 List of differentially abundant metabolites with intensity value and log2 values from P. kurroa under control, early cold stress (4 °C 24h), one-week cold stress (4 °C 7D), and freezing stress (-4 °C 24h) using UHPLC-MS.Supplementary file2 (XLS 205 KB)
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Satyakam, Joshi, R. & Kumar, R. Unique Metabolic Shift Reveals Potential Mechanism of Cold and Freezing Acclimatization. J Plant Growth Regul 42, 5763–5779 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-023-10961-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-023-10961-w