Abstract
This article reviews the diagnosis and treatment of flexor tendon injuries of the hand highlighting flexor tendon anatomy, important pre-operative imaging findings, surgical options, and post-operative complications. Imaging plays a key role in guiding treatment of these difficult to manage injuries. Thus, it is important for radiologists to have a sound understanding of factors important in treatment decision-making. In the pre-operative setting, accurately identifying the location of the torn proximal tendon stump in subacute and chronic injuries helps dictate whether the patient is a candidate for a primary flexor tendon repair or may require a tendon reconstruction to restore function. In the post-operative setting, the status of the repair and presence of surrounding adhesions help dictate if and when the patient will require subsequent surgery and whether that surgery will be a tenolysis, revision repair, reconstruction, or fusion.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Clayton RAE, Court-Brown CM. The epidemiology of musculoskeletal tendinous and ligamentous injuries. Injury. 2008;39:1338–44.
Manninen M, Karjalainen T, Määttä J, Flinkkilä T. Epidemiology of flexor tendon injuries of the hand in a Northern Finnish population. Scand J Surg. 2016;106:278–82.
Doyle JR. Anatomy of the flexor tendon sheath and pulley system: a current review. J Hand Surg. 1989;14:349–51.
Armenta E, Lehrman A. The vincula to the flexor tendons of the hand. J Hand Surg. 1980;5:127–34.
Ochiai N, Matsui T, Miyaji N, Merklin RJ, Hunter JM. Vascular anatomy of flexor tendons. I. Vincular system and blood supply of the profundus tendon in the digital sheath. J Hand Surg. 1979;4:321–30.
Ruchelsman DE, Christoforou D, Wasserman B, Lee SK, Rettig ME. Avulsion injuries of the flexor digitorum profundus tendon. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2011;19:152–62.
Manske PR, Lesker PA. Nutrient pathways of flexor tendons in primates. J Hand Surg. 1982;7:436–44.
Stephens AR, Buterbaugh KL, Gordon JA, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound evaluations of zone II partial flexor tendon lacerations. J Ultrasound Med. 2021;40:1651–6.
Alvarez DA, Ballard DH, Carroll T, Frilot C, Simoncini AA. Ultrasound localization of lacerated flexor tendon ends in the hand: a cadaveric study. Skelet Radiol. 2019;48:1941–6.
Lapegue F, Andre A, Brun C, et al. Traumatic flexor tendon injuries. Diagn Interv Imaging. 2015;96:1279–92.
Ravnic DJ, Galiano RD, Bodavula V, Friedman DW, Flores RL. Diagnosis and localization of flexor tendon injuries by surgeon-performed ultrasound: a cadaveric study. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2011;64:234–9.
Leddy JP, Packer JW. Avulsion of the profundus tendon insertion in athletes. J Hand Surg. 1977;2:66–9.
Al-Qattan MM. Type 5 avulsion of the insertion of the flexor digitorum profundus tendon. J Hand Surg. 2001;26:427–31.
Smith JH Jr. Avulsion of a profundus tendon with simultaneous intraarticular fracture of the distal phalanx - case report. J Hand Surg. 1981;6:600–1.
Dy CJ, Daluiski A. Update on zone II flexor tendon injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014;22:791–9.
Klifto CS, Capo JT, Sapienza A, Yang SS, Paksima N. Flexor tendon injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2018;26:e26–35.
Lundborg G, Myrhage R, Rydevik B. The vascularization of human flexor tendons within the digital synovial sheath region - structural and functional aspects. J Hand Surg. 1977;2:417–27.
Berrigan W, White W, Cipriano K, Wickstrom J, Smith J, Hager N. Diagnostic imaging of A2 pulley injuries: a review of the literature. J Ultrasound Med. 2022;41:1047–59.
Al-Qattan MM. Flexor tendon repair in zone III. J Hand Surg Eur. 2010;36:48–52.
Al-Qattan MM. Conservative management of zone II partial flexor tendon lacerations greater than half the width of the tendon. J Hand Surg Am. 2000;25:1118–21.
Strickland JW. Development of flexor tendon surgery: twenty-five years of progress. J Hand Surg Am. 2000;25:214–35.
Strickland JW. Flexor tendon injuries: I. Foundations of Treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 1995;3:44–54.
Samora JB, Klinefelter RD. Flexor tendon reconstruction. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2016;24:28–36.
Fletcher DR, McClinton MA. Single-stage flexor tendon grafting: refining the steps. J Hand Surg Am. 2015;40:1452–60.
Hunter JM, Salisbury RE. Flexor-tendon reconstruction in severely damaged hands: a two-stage procedure using a silicone-dacron reinforced gliding prosthesis prior to tendon grafting. JBJS. 1971;53:829–58.
Jakubietz MG, Jakubietz DF, Gruenert JG, Zahn R, Meffert RH, Jakubietz RG. Adequacy of palmaris longus and plantaris tendons for tendon grafting. J Hand Surg. 2011;36:695–8.
Simpson SL, Hertzog MS, Barja RH. The plantaris tendon graft: an ultrasound study. J Hand Surg. 1991;16:708–11.
Johnson CC, Vutescu ES, Miller TT, Nwawka OK, Lee SK, Wolfe SW. Ultrasound determination of presence, length and diameter of the palmaris longus tendon. J Hand Surg Eur. 2018;43:948–53.
McClinton MA, Curtis RM, Wilgis EFS. One hundred tendon grafts for isolated flexor digitorum profundus injuries. J Hand Surg. 1982;7:224–9.
Matloub HS, Dzwierzynski WW, Erickson S, Sanger JR, Yousif NJ, Mouneke V. Magnetic resonance imaging scanning in the diagnosis of zone II flexor tendon rupture. J Hand Surg Am. 1996;21:451–5.
Budovec JJ, Sudakoff GS, Dzwierzynski WW, Matloub HS, Sanger JR. Sonographic differentiation of digital tendon rupture from adhesive scarring after primary surgical repair. J Hand Surg Am. 2006;31:524–9.
Renfree KJ, Dahiya N, Kransdorf MJ, Zhang N, Patel KA, Drace PA. Comparative accuracy of 1.5T MRI, 3T MRI, and static ultrasound in diagnosis of small gaps in repaired flexor tendons: a cadaveric study. J Hand Surg Am. 2021;46:287–94.
Dy CJ, Hernandez-Soria A, Ma Y, Roberts TR, Daluiski A. Complications after Ffexor tendon repair: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hand Surg. 2012;37:543–551.e1.
Wehbé MA, Mawr B, Hunter JM, Schneider LH, Goodwyn BL. Two-stage flexor-tendon reconstruction. Ten-year experience. JBJS. 1986;68:752–63.
Civan O, Gürsoy M, Cavit A, Özcanlı H, Karalezli M. Tenolysis rate after zone 2 flexor tendon repairs. Jt Dis Relat Surg. 2020;31:281–5.
Elliot D, Giesen T. Treatment of unfavourable results of flexor tendon surgery: ruptured repairs, tethered repairs and pulley incompetence. Indian J Plast Surg. 2013;46:458–71.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Daniels, S.P., Kirby, D. & De Tolla, J. Diagnosis and treatment of flexor tendon injuries of the hand: what the radiologist needs to know. Skeletal Radiol 53, 597–608 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-023-04460-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-023-04460-y