Abstract
Neurological disorders, including Alzheimer and Parkinson’s, pose significant challenges to public health due to their complex etiologies and limited treatment options. Recent advances in research have highlighted the intricate bidirectional communication between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system (CNS), revealing a potential therapeutic avenue for neurological disorders. Thus, this review aims to summarize the current understanding of the pharmacological role of gut microbiome in neurological disorders. Mounting evidence suggests that the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in modulating CNS function through various mechanisms, including the production of neurotransmitters, neuroactive metabolites, and immune system modulation. Dysbiosis, characterized by alterations in gut microbial composition and function, has been observed in many neurological disorders, indicating a potential causative or contributory role. Pharmacological interventions targeting the gut microbiome have emerged as promising therapeutic strategies for neurological disorders. Probiotics, prebiotics, antibiotics, and microbial metabolite-based interventions have shown beneficial effects in animal models and some human studies. These interventions aim to restore microbial homeostasis, enhance microbial diversity, and promote the production of beneficial metabolites. However, several challenges remain, including the need for standardized protocols, identification of specific microbial signatures associated with different neurological disorders, and understanding the precise mechanisms underlying gut-brain communication. Further research is necessary to unravel the intricate interactions between the gut microbiome and the CNS and to develop targeted pharmacological interventions for neurological disorders.
Graphical Abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aguiar S, Borowski T (2013) Neuropharmacological review of the nootropic herb Bacopa monnieri. Rejuvenation Res 16(4):313. https://doi.org/10.1089/REJ.2013.1431
Ahmed H, Leyrolle Q, Koistinen V, Kärkkäinen O, Layé S, Delzenne N, Hanhineva K (2022) Microbiota-derived metabolites as drivers of gut–brain communication. Gut Microbes 14(1):2102878
Alhelí Domínguez-Martínez D, Núñez-Avellaneda D, Castañón-Sánchez CA, Salazar MI (2018) NOD2: activation during bacterial and viral infections, polymorphisms and potential as therapeutic target. Revista de investigación clínica 70(1):18–28. https://doi.org/10.24875/RIC.17002327
Al-Najjar Y, Arabi M, Paul P, Chaari A (2022) Can probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic supplementation modulate the gut-liver axis in type 2 diabetes? A narrative and systematic review of clinical trials. Front Nutr 1(9):1052619
Ansar W, Ghosh S (2016) Inflammation and inflammatory diseases, markers, and mediators: role of CRP in some inflammatory diseases. In: Biology of C reactive protein in health and disease 2016:67–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2680-2_4
Appleton J (2018) The gut-brain axis: influence of microbiota on mood and mental health. Integrative Medicine: A Clinician’s Journal 17(4):28
Arbo BD, André-Miral C, Nasre-Nasser RG, Schimith LE, Santos MG, Costa-Silva D, Muccillo-Baisch AL, Hort MA (2020) Resveratrol derivatives as potential treatments for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 12:514481. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNAGI.2020.00103/BIBTEX
Baj A, Moro E, Bistoletti M, Orlandi V, Crema F, Giaroni C (2019) Glutamatergic signaling along the microbiota-gut-brain axis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20(6):1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS20061482
Bale TL, Vale WW (2003) Increased depression-like behaviors in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-2-deficient mice: sexually dichotomous responses. J Neurosci 23(12):5295. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-12-05295.2003
Baur JA, Pearson KJ, Price NL, Jamieson HA, Lerin C, Kalra A, Prabhu VV, Allard JS, Lopez-Lluch G, Lewis K, Pistell PJ, Poosala S, Becker KG, Boss O, Gwinn D, Wang M, Ramaswamy S, Fishbein KW, Spencer RG, Sinclair DA (2006) Resveratrol improves health and survival of mice on a high-calorie diet. Nature 444(7117):337–342. https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE05354
Berahmand F, Anoush G, Hosseini MJ, Anoush M (2020) Grape seed oil as a natural therapy in male rats with Alzheimer’s diseases. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin 10(3):430. https://doi.org/10.34172/APB.2020.052
Bercik P, Park AJ, Sinclair D, Khoshdel A, Lu J, Huang X, Deng Y, Blennerhassett PA, Fahnestock M, Moine D, Berger B, Huizinga JD, Kunze W, Mclean PG, Bergonzelli GE, Collins SM, Verdu EF (2011) The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut–brain communication. Neurogastroenterology and Motility : the Official Journal of the European Gastrointestinal Motility Society 23(12):1132. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2982.2011.01796.X
Bernardo TC, Marques-Aleixo I, Beleza J, Oliveira PJ, Ascensão A, Magalhães J (2016) Physical exercise and brain mitochondrial fitness: the possible role against Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Pathol 26(5):648. https://doi.org/10.1111/BPA.12403
Bhuiyan P, Wang YW, Sha HH, Dong HQ, Qian YN (2021) Neuroimmune connections between corticotropin-releasing hormone and mast cells: novel strategies for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Neural Regen Res 16(11):2184. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.310608
Bird RJ, Hoggard N, Aceves-Martins M (2022) The effect of grape interventions on cognitive and mental performance in healthy participants and those with mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev 80(3):367. https://doi.org/10.1093/NUTRIT/NUAB025
Bookheimer SY, Renner BA, Ekstrom A, Li Z, Henning SM, Brown JA, Jones M, Moody T, Small GW (2013) Pomegranate juice augments memory and fMRI activity in middle-aged and older adults with mild memory complaints. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013:946298. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/946298
Brandt LW (1979) German language psychoanalysis today. Psychoanal Rev 66(4):591–616. https://doi.org/10.5061/DRYAD.J7H0C
Braniste V, Al-Asmakh M, Kowal C, Anuar F, Abbaspour A, Tóth M, Korecka A, Bakocevic N, Guan NL, Kundu P, Gulyás B, Halldin C, Hultenby K, Nilsson H, Hebert H, Volpe BT, Diamond B, Pettersson S (2014) The gut microbiota influences blood-brain barrier permeability in mice. Science Translational Medicine 6(263):263ra158. https://doi.org/10.1126/SCITRANSLMED.3009759
Breit S, Kupferberg A, Rogler G, Hasler G (2018) Vagus nerve as modulator of the brain–gut axis in psychiatric and inflammatory disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry 9(MAR):1. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYT.2018.00044
Cantu-Jungles TM, Rasmussen HE, Hamaker BR (2019) Potential of prebiotic butyrogenic fibers in Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Neurology 10(JUN):663. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNEUR.2019.00663
Capiralla H, Vingtdeux V, Zhao H, Sankowski R, Al-Abed Y, Davies P, Marambaud P (2012) Resveratrol mitigates lipopolysaccharide- and Aβ-mediated microglial inflammation by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB/STAT signaling cascade. J Neurochem 120(3):461. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1471-4159.2011.07594.X
Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli MA, Severi C (2015) The gut-brain axis: interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Annals of Gastroenterology : Quarterly Publication of the Hellenic Society of Gastroenterology 28(2):203
Cases J, Ibarra A, Feuillère N, Roller M, Sukkar SG (2011) Pilot trial of Melissa officinalis L. leaf extract in the treatment of volunteers suffering from mild-to-moderate anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances. Mediterr J Nutr Metab 4(3):211–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12349-010-0045-4
Castelli V, D’Angelo M, Quintiliani M, Benedetti E, Cifone MG, Cimini A (2021) The emerging role of probiotics in neurodegenerative diseases: new hope for Parkinson’s disease? Neural Regen Res 16(4):628. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.295270
Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Li Y, Wang X, Zhao L (2018) Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget 9(6):7204. https://doi.org/10.18632/ONCOTARGET.23208
Chen Y, Xu J, Chen Y (2021) Regulation of neurotransmitters by the gut microbiota and effects on cognition in neurological disorders. Nutrients 13(6):2099
Cheng LH, Liu YW, Wu CC, Wang S, Tsai YC (2019) Psychobiotics in mental health, neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. J Food Drug Anal 27(3):632. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFDA.2019.01.002
Cherry P, Yadav S, Strain CR, Allsopp PJ, McSorley EM, Ross RP, Stanton C (2019) Prebiotics from seaweeds: an ocean of opportunity? Mar Drugs 17(6):327
Chesselet MF, Carmichael ST (2012) Animal models of neurological disorders. Neurotherapeutics 9(2):241. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13311-012-0118-9
Chiang HM, Chen HC, Wu CS, Wu PY, Wen KC (2015) Rhodiola plants: chemistry and biological activity. J Food Drug Anal 23(3):359. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFDA.2015.04.007
Chichibu H, Yamagishi K, Kishida R, Maruyama K, Hayama-Terada M, Shimizu Y, Muraki I, Umesawa M, Cui R, Imano H, Ohira T, Tanigawa T, Sankai T, Okada T, Kitamura A, Kiyama M, Iso H (2021) Seaweed intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: the circulatory risk in communities study (CIRCS). J Atheroscler Thromb 28(12):1298. https://doi.org/10.5551/JAT.61390
Ciesielska A, Matyjek M, Kwiatkowska K (2021) TLR4 and CD14 trafficking and its influence on LPS-induced pro-inflammatory signaling. Cell Mol Life Sci 78(4):1233. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00018-020-03656-Y
Clapp M, Aurora N, Herrera L, Bhatia M, Wilen E, Wakefield S (2017) Gut microbiota’s effect on mental health: The gut-brain axis. Clinics and Practice 7(4):987. https://doi.org/10.4081/CP.2017.987
Conlon MA, Bird AR (2015) The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health. Nutrients 7(1):17. https://doi.org/10.3390/NU7010017
Coque E, Salsac C, Espinosa-Carrasco G, Varga B, Degauque N, Cadoux M, Crabé R, Virenque A, Soulard C, Fierle JK, Brodovitch A, Libralato M, Végh AG, Venteo S, Scamps F, Boucraut J, Laplaud D, Hernandez J, Gergely C, Raoul C (2019) Cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes expressing ALS-causing SOD1 mutant selectively trigger death of spinal motoneurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116(6):2312–2317. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1815961116
Dalton A, Mermier C, Zuhl M (2019) Exercise influence on the microbiome–gut–brain axis. Gut Microbes 10(5):555. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2018.1562268
Dalva MB, McClelland AC, Kayser MS (2007) Cell adhesion molecules: signalling functions at the synapse. Nat Rev Neurosci 8(3):206. https://doi.org/10.1038/NRN2075
Daneman R, Prat A (2015) The blood–brain barrier. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 7(1):a020412
Degruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E (2016) Current understanding of dysbiosis in disease in human and animal models. Inflamm Bowel Dis 22(5):1137. https://doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750
Del Toro-Barbosa M, Hurtado-Romero A, Garcia-Amezquita LE, García-Cayuela T (2020) Psychobiotics: mechanisms of action, evaluation methods and effectiveness in applications with food products. Nutrients 12(12):1–31. https://doi.org/10.3390/NU12123896
Deng H, Dong X, Chen M, Zou Z (2020) Efficacy of probiotics on cognition, and biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in adults with Alzheimer’s disease or mild cognitive impairment — a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Aging (Albany NY) 12(4):4010. https://doi.org/10.18632/AGING.102810
Descamps HC, Herrmann B, Wiredu D, Thaiss CA (2019) The path toward using microbial metabolites as therapies. EBioMedicine 44:747. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EBIOM.2019.05.063
Dhawan K, Kumar S, Sharma A (2001) Anxiolytic activity of aerial and underground parts of Passiflora incarnata. Fitoterapia 72(8):922–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(01)00322-7
Dicks LM (2022) Gut bacteria and neurotransmitters. Microorganisms 10(9):1838
Dineley KT, Westerman M, Bui D, Bell K, Ashe KH, Sweatt JD (2001) β-amyloid activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade via hippocampal α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors:in vitro and in vivo mechanisms related to Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 21(12):4125. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-12-04125.2001
Ducarmon QR, Zwittink RD, Hornung BVH, van Schaik W, Young VB, Kuijper EJ (2019) Gut microbiota and colonization resistance against bacterial enteric infection. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 83(3) https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00007-19
Ebeler SE (1997) Phytochemicals and wine flavour. In: Functionality of food phytochemicals, volume 31. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5919-1
Fang P, Kazmi SA, Jameson KG, Hsiao EY (2020) The microbiome as a modifier of neurodegenerative disease risk. Cell Host Microbe 28(2):201. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHOM.2020.06.008
Farhana A, Khan YS (2023) Biochemistry, lipopolysaccharide. In: InStatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, p 17
Feltenstein MW, Lambdin LC, Ganzera M, Dharmaratne HRW, Nanayakkara NPD, Khan IA, Sufka KJ (2003) Anxiolytic properties of Piper methysticum extract samples and fractions in the chick social-separation-stress procedure. Phytotherapy Research : PTR 17(3):210–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/PTR.1107
Fijan S (2014) Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: an overview of recent literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health 11(5):4745. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH110504745
Finnegan D, Tocmo R, Loscher C (2023) Targeted application of functional foods as immune fitness boosters in the defense against viral infection. Nutrients 15(15):3371
Galiano-Landeira J, Torra A, Vila M, Bové J (2020) CD8 T cell nigral infiltration precedes synucleinopathy in early stages of Parkinson’s disease. Brain 143(12):3717–3733. https://doi.org/10.1093/BRAIN/AWAA269
Gao J, Zhao L, Cheng Y, Lei W, Wang Y, Liu X, Zheng N, Shao L, Chen X, Sun Y, Ling Z (2023) Probiotics for the treatment of depression and its comorbidities: a systemic review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 17(13):1167116
Gates EJ, Bernath AK, Klegeris A (2022) Modifying the diet and gut microbiota to prevent and manage neurodegenerative diseases. Rev Neurosci 33(7):767. https://doi.org/10.1515/REVNEURO-2021-0146
Gong Z, Huang J, Xu B, Ou Z, Zhang L, Lin X, Ye X, Kong X, Long D, Sun X, He X (2019) Urolithin a attenuates memory impairment and neuroinflammation in APP/PS1 mice. J Neuroinflammation 16:1–3
Goya ME, Xue F, Sampedro-Torres-Quevedo C, Arnaouteli S, Riquelme-Dominguez L, Romanowski A, Brydon J, Ball KL, Stanley-Wall NR, Doitsidou M (2020) Probiotic Bacillus subtilis protects against α-synuclein aggregation in C. elegans. Cell Reports 30(2):367. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELREP.2019.12.078
Hakansson A, Molin G (2011) Gut microbiota and inflammation. Nutrients 3(6):637. https://doi.org/10.3390/NU3060637
Han Y, Wang B, Gao H, He C, Hua R, Liang C, Zhang S, Wang Y, Xin S, Xu J (2022) Vagus nerve and underlying impact on the gut microbiota-brain axis in behavior and neurodegenerative diseases. J Inflamm Res 15:6213. https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S384949
Hasnat MA, Pervin M, Cha KM, Kim SK, Lim BO (2015) Anti-inflammatory activity on mice of extract of Ganoderma lucidum grown on rice via modulation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Phytochemistry 114:125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHYTOCHEM.2014.10.019
Henning S, Yang J, Lee R, Huang J, Small G, Guo Y, Heber D, Li Z (2019) Effect of pomegranate juice consumption on plasma indole propionic acid, a bacterial-derived tryptophan metabolite (P20–003–19) Curr Dev Nutr 3(Suppl 1), nzz040.P20–003–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/CDN/NZZ040.P20-003-19
Herrera-Calderon O, Santiváñez-Acosta R, Pari-Olarte B, Enciso-Roca E, Campos Montes VM, Luis Arroyo Acevedo J (2018) Anticonvulsant effect of ethanolic extract of Cyperus articulatus L. leaves on pentylenetetrazol induced seizure in mice. J Tradit Complement Med 8(1):95. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTCME.2017.03.001
Hey G, Nair N, Klann E, Gurrala A, Safarpour D, Mai V, Ramirez-Zamora A, Vedam-Mai V (2023) Therapies for Parkinson’s disease and the gut microbiome: evidence for bidirectional connection. Front Aging Neurosci 15:1151850
Hoyles L, Snelling T, Umlai UK, Nicholson JK, Carding SR, Glen RC, McArthur S (2018) Microbiome–host systems interactions: protective effects of propionate upon the blood–brain barrier. Microbiome 6:1–3
Huang L, Lv X, Ze X, Ma Z, Zhang X, He R, Fan J, Zhang M, Sun B, Wang F, Liu H (2022) Combined probiotics attenuate chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depressive-like and anxiety-like behaviors in rats. Front Psychiatry 7(13):990465
Hylander BL, Repasky EA (2019) Temperature as a modulator of the gut microbiome: what are the implications and opportunities for thermal medicine? International Journal of Hyperthermia : the Official Journal of European Society for Hyperthermic Oncology, North American Hyperthermia Group 36(SUP1):83. https://doi.org/10.1080/02656736.2019.1647356
Irwin DJ, Lee VMY, Trojanowski JQ (2013) Parkinson’s disease dementia: convergence of α-synuclein, tau and amyloid-β pathologies. Nat Rev Neurosci 14(9):626. https://doi.org/10.1038/NRN3549
Janssen A, Fiebiger S, Bros H, Hertwig L, Romero-Suarez S, Hamann I, Chanvillard C, Bellmann-Strobl J, Paul F, Millward JM (2015) Infante- Duarte C. Treatment of chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with epigallocatechin-3-gallate and glatiramer acetate alters expression of heme-oxygenase-1. PLoS One 10(6):e0130251
Kalyan M, Tousif AH, Sonali S, Vichitra C, Sunanda T, Praveenraj SS, Ray B, Gorantla VR, Rungratanawanich W, Mahalakshmi AM, Qoronfleh MW (2022) Role of endogenous lipopolysaccharides in neurological disorders. Cells 11(24):4038
Kandpal M, Indari O, Baral B, Jakhmola S, Tiwari D, Bhandari V, Pandey RK, Bala K, Sonawane A, Jha HC (2022) Dysbiosis of gut microbiota from the perspective of the gut–brain Axis: role in the provocation of neurological disorders. Metabolites 12(11):1064
Katzenshlager R, Evans A, Manson A, Palsalos PN, Ratnaraj N, Watt H, Timmermann L, Van Der Giessen R, Lees AJ (2004) Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson’s disease: a double blind clinical and pharmacological study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75(12):1672–1677. https://doi.org/10.1136/JNNP.2003.028761
Kaur M, Agarwal C, Agarwal R (2009) Anticancer and cancer chemopreventive potential of grape seed extract and other grape-based products. J Nutr 139(9):1806S. https://doi.org/10.3945/JN.109.106864
Kawka M, Brzostek A, Dzitko K, Kryczka J, Bednarek R, Płocińska R, Płociński P, Strapagiel D, Gatkowska J, Dziadek J, Dziadek B (2021) Mycobacterium tuberculosis binds human serum amyloid a, and the interaction modulates the colonization of human macrophages and the transcriptional response of the pathogen. Cells 10(5):1264
Kechagia M, Basoulis D, Konstantopoulou S, Dimitriadi D, Gyftopoulou K, Skarmoutsou N, Fakiri EM (2013) Health benefits of probiotics: a review. ISRN Nutrition 2013:1–7. https://doi.org/10.5402/2013/481651
Kim KH, Lee D, Lee HL, Kim CE, Jung K, Kang KS (2018) Beneficial effects of Panax ginseng for the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases: past findings and future directions. J Ginseng Res 42(3):239. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JGR.2017.03.011
Kim S, Park S, Choi TG, Kim SS (2022) Role of short chain fatty acids in epilepsy and potential benefits of probiotics and prebiotics: targeting “health” of epileptic patients. Nutrients 14(14):2982
Klann EM, Dissanayake U, Gurrala A, Farrer M, Shukla AW, Ramirez-Zamora A, Mai V, Vedam-Mai V (2022) The gut–brain axis and its relation to Parkinson’s disease: a review. Front Aging Neurosci 7(13):782082
Koulivand PH, Khaleghi Ghadiri M, Gorji A (2013) Lavender and the nervous system. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013:681304. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/681304
Kowalski K, Mulak A (2019) Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility 25(1):48. https://doi.org/10.5056/JNM18087
Krause DL, Müller N (2010) Neuroinflammation, microglia and implications for anti-inflammatory treatment in Alzheimer's disease. Int J Alzheimers Dis 14:2010
Kujawska M, Jourdes M, Kurpik M, Szulc M, Szaefer H, Chmielarz P, Kreiner G, Krajka-Kuźniak V, Mikołajczak PŁ, Teissedre PL, Jodynis- LJ (2019) Neuroprotective effects of pomegranate juice against Parkinson’s disease and presence of ellagitannins-derived metabolite— urolithin A—in the brain. Int J Mol Sci 21(1):202
Kumar V, Khanna VK, Seth PK, Singh PN, Bhattacharya SK (2002) Brain neurotransmitter receptor binding and nootropic studies on Indian Hypericum perforatum Linn. Phytother Res 16(3):210–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1101
Lampariello L, Cortelazzo A, Guerranti R, Sticozzi C, Valacchi G (2012) The magic velvet bean of Mucuna pruriens. J Tradit Complement Med 2(4):331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2225-4110(16)30119-5
Lee BJ, Bak YT (2011) Irritable bowel syndrome, gut microbiota and probiotics. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility 17(3):252. https://doi.org/10.5056/JNM.2011.17.3.252
Lee KH, Cha M, Lee BH (2020) Neuroprotective effect of antioxidants in the brain. Int J Mol Sci 21(19):1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS21197152
Leite AM, Miguel MA, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS, Silva JT, Paschoalin VM (2013) Microbiological, technological and therapeutic properties of kefir: a natural probiotic beverage. Braz J Microbiol 44(2):341. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822013000200001
Liao D, Lv C, Cao L, Yao D, Wu Y, Long M, Liu N, Jiang P (2020) Curcumin attenuates chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depressive-like behaviors via restoring changes in oxidative stress and the activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway in rats. Oxidative Med Cell Longev. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/9268083
Lin CH, Hsieh CL (2021 Jul) Chinese herbal medicine for treating epilepsy. Front Neurosci 2(15):682821
Linninge C, Xu J, Bahl MI, Ahrné S, Molin G (2019) Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactobacillus plantarum increased gut microbiota diversity and functionality, and mitigated Enterobacteriaceae, in a mouse model. Beneficial Microbes 10(4):413–424. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2018.0074
Liu J, Tan Y, Cheng H, Zhang D, Feng W, Peng C (2022) Functions of gut microbiota metabolites, current status and future perspectives. Aging and Disease 13(4):1106. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2022.0104
Liu C, Hu T, Cai Z, Xie Q, Yuan Y, Li N, Xie S, Yao Q, Zhao J, Wu QQ, Tang Q (2020) Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor 3 deficiency attenuated isoproterenol-induced cardiac fibrosis via reactive oxygen species/high mobility group box 1 protein axis. Front Cell Dev Biol 8:713
Ma J, Gao SS, Yang HJ, Wang M, Cheng BF, Feng ZW, Wang L (2018) Neuroprotective effects of proanthocyanidins, natural flavonoids derived from plants, on rotenone-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Front Neurosci 12:369
Ma YF, Lin YA, Huang CL, Hsu CC, Wang S, Yeh SR, Tsai YC (2023) Lactiplantibacillus plantarum PS128 alleviates exaggerated cortical beta oscillations and motor deficits in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins 15(2):312–325
Maciel-Fiuza MF, Muller GC, Campos DM, do Socorro Silva Costa P, Peruzzo J, Bonamigo RR, Veit T, Vianna FS (2023) Role of gut microbiota in infectious and inflammatory diseases. Front Microbiol 14:1098386
Mackowiak PA (2013) Recycling Metchnikoff: probiotics, the intestinal microbiome and the quest for long life. Front Public Health 1:56101
Madison A, Kiecolt-Glaser JK (2019) Stress, depression, diet, and the gut microbiota: human–bacteria interactions at the core of psychoneuroimmunology and nutrition. Curr Opin Behav Sci 28:105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.01.011
Magne F, Gotteland M, Gauthier L, Zazueta A, Pesoa S, Navarrete P, Balamurugan R (2020) The firmicutes/bacteroidetes ratio: a relevant marker of gut dysbiosis in obese patients? Nutrients 12(5):1474
Marchetti L, Engelhardt B (2020) Immune cell trafficking across the blood-brain barrier in the absence and presence of neuroinflammation. Vascular Biology 2(1):H1. https://doi.org/10.1530/VB-19-0033
Markowiak P, Ślizewska K (2017) Effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on human health. Nutrients 9(9):1021. https://doi.org/10.3390/NU9091021
Markowiak-Kopeć P, Śliżewska K (2020) The effect of probiotics on the production of short-chain fatty acids by human intestinal microbiome. Nutrients 12(4):1107
Martin CR, Osadchiy V, Kalani A, Mayer EA (2018) The brain-gut-microbiome axis. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 6(2):133. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCMGH.2018.04.003
Mayer EA, Tillisch K (2011) The brain-gut axis in abdominal pain syndromes. Annu Rev Med 62:381–396. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-MED-012309-103958
Mead RJ, Bennett EJ, Kennerley AJ, Sharp P, Sunyach C, Kasher P, Berwick J, Pettmann B, Battaglia G, Azzouz M, Grierson A, Shaw PJ (2011) Optimised and rapid pre-clinical screening in the SOD1(G93A) transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). PloS One, 6(8):e23244. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0023244
Melamed E, Palmer JL, Fonken C (2022) Advantages and limitations of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in breaking down the role of the gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Front Mol Neurosci 4(15):1019877. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNMOL.2022.1019877
Melloni A, Liu L, Kashinath V, Abdi R, Shah K (2023) Meningeal lymphatics and their role in CNS disorder treatment: moving past misconceptions. Frontiers in Neuroscience 17:1184049. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNINS.2023.1184049
Miranda M, Morici JF, Zanoni MB, Bekinschtein P (2019) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor: a key molecule for memory in the healthy and the pathological brain. Front Cell Neurosci 13:472800. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNCEL.2019.00363/BIBTEX
Mogensen TH (2009) Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses. Clin Microbiol Rev 22(2):240. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00046-08
Mohan Gowda CM, Murugan SK, Bethapudi B, Purusothaman D, Mundkinajeddu D, D’Souza P (2023) Ocimum tenuiflorum extract (HOLIXERTM): possible effects on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis in modulating stress. PLOS ONE 18(5):e0285012. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0285012
Monda V, Villano I, Messina A, Valenzano A, Esposito T, Moscatelli F, Viggiano A, Cibelli G, Chieffi S, Monda M, Messina G (2017) Exercise modifies the gut microbiota with positive health effects. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3831972
Mukhtar K, Nawaz H, Abid S (2019) Functional gastrointestinal disorders and gut-brain axis: what does the future hold? World J Gastroenterol 25(5):552. https://doi.org/10.3748/WJG.V25.I5.552
Murphy K, Kubin ZJ, Shepherd JN, Ettinger RH (2010) Valeriana officinalis root extracts have potent anxiolytic effects in laboratory rats. Phytomedicine : International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 17(8–9):674–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHYMED.2009.10.020
Nguyen NM, Cho J, Lee C (2023) Gut microbiota and Alzheimer’s disease: how to study and apply their relationship. Int J Mol Sci 24(4):4047
Nimgampalle M, Yellamma K (2017) Anti-Alzheimer properties of probiotic, Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC 1325 in Alzheimer’s disease induced albino rats. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR 11(8):KC01. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2017/26106.10428
Oh D, Cheon KA (2020) Alteration of gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorder: an overview. Journal of the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31(3):131. https://doi.org/10.5765/JKACAP.190039
Ojha S, Patil N, Jain M, Kole C, Kaushik P (2023) Probiotics for neurodegenerative diseases: a systemic review. Microorganisms 11(4):1083
Omotosho AO, Tajudeen YA, Oladipo HJ, Yusuff SI, AbdulKadir M, Muili AO, Egbewande OM, Yusuf RO, Faniran ZO, Afolabi AO, El-Sherbini MS (2023) Parkinson's disease: are gut microbes involved? Brain Behav 13(8):e3130
Pal PP, Begum AS, Basha SA, Araya H, Fujimoto Y (2023) New natural pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) and iNOS inhibitors identified from Penicillium polonicum through in vitro and in vivo studies. Int Immunopharmacol 117:109940
Pardridge WM (2020) Treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and blood–brain barrier drug delivery. Pharmaceuticals 13(11):1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/PH13110394
Parker A, Fonseca S, Carding SR (2020) Gut microbes and metabolites as modulators of blood-brain barrier integrity and brain health. Gut Microbes 11(2):135. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2019.1638722
Pedrosa Carrasco AJ, Timmermann L, Pedrosa DJ (2018) Management of constipation in patients with Parkinson’s disease. NPJ Parkinson’s Disease 4(1):6. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41531-018-0042-8
Peterson CT, Sharma V, Iablokov SN, Albayrak L, Khanipov K, Uchitel S, Chopra D, Mills PJ, Fofanov Y, Rodionov DA, Peterson SN (2019) 16S rRNA gene profiling and genome reconstruction reveal community metabolic interactions and prebiotic potential of medicinal herbs used in neurodegenerative disease and as nootropics. PLoS One 14(3):e0213869
Peterson CT, Iablokov SN, Uchitel S, Chopra D, Perez-Santiago J, Rodionov DA, Peterson SN (2021) Community metabolic interactions, vitamin production and prebiotic potential of medicinal herbs used for immunomodulation. Front Genet 12:584197
Peterson CT (2020) Dysfunction of the microbiota-gut-brain axis in neurodegenerative disease: the promise of therapeutic modulation with prebiotics, medicinal herbs, probiotics, and synbiotics. Journal of Evidence-Based Integrative Medicine, 25. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515690X20957225
Petzinger GM, Fisher BE, McEwen S, Beeler JA, Walsh JP, Jakowec MW (2013) Exercise-enhanced neuroplasticity targeting motor and cognitive circuitry in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 12(7):716–726
Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Pausan MR, Ardjomand-Woelkart K, Röck S, Ammar RM, Kelber O, Moissl-Eichinger C, Bauer R (2022) Medicinal plants and their impact on the gut microbiome in mental health: a systematic review. Nutrients 14(10):2111
Phavichitr N, Wang S, Chomto S, Tantibhaedhyangkul R, Kakourou A, Intarakhao S, Jongpiputvanich S, COLOR Study Group, Anundorn W, Kaouther B-A, Rocio M, Steven T, Orapa S, Chonikarn V, Punnapatch P, Roeselers G, Knol J (2021) Impact of synbiotics on gut microbiota during early life: a randomized, double-blind study. Sci Rep 11(1):3534
Poupet C, Chassard C, Nivoliez A, Bornes S (2020) Caenorhabditis elegans, a host to investigate the probiotic properties of beneficial microorganisms. Front Nutr 7:135
Prado MR, Blandón LM, Vandenberghe LP, Rodrigues C, Castro GR, Thomaz-Soccol V, Soccol CR (2015) Milk kefir: composition, microbial cultures, biological activities, and related products. Front Microbiol 6:148908
Pritchett D, Taylor AM, Barkus C, Engle SJ, Brandon NJ, Sharp T, Foster RG, Harrison PJ, Peirson SN, Bannerman DM (2016) Searching for cognitive enhancement in the Morris water maze: better and worse performance in D-amino acid oxidase knockout (Dao−/−) mice. Eur J Neurosci 43(7):979. https://doi.org/10.1111/EJN.13192
Proschinger S, Kuhwand P, Rademacher A, Walzik D, Warnke C, Zimmer P, Joisten N (2022) Fitness, physical activity, and exercise in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review on current evidence for interactions with disease activity and progression. J Neurol 269(6):2922. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00415-021-10935-6
Ramos C, Gibson GR, Walton GE, Magistro D, Kinnear W, Hunter K (2022) Systematic review of the effects of exercise and physical activity on the gut microbiome of older adults. Nutrients 14(3):674
Reish HEA, Standaert DG (2015) Role of α-synuclein in inducing innate and adaptive immunity in Parkinson disease. Journal of Parkinson’s Disease 5(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3233/JPD-140491
Rinninella E, Cintoni M, Raoul P, Lopetuso LR, Scaldaferri F, Pulcini G, Miggiano GA, Gasbarrini A, Mele MC (2019) Food components and dietary habits: keys for a healthy gut microbiota composition. Nutrients 11(10):2393
Rivière A, Selak M, Lantin D, Leroy F, De Vuyst L et al (2016) Front Microbiol 8(7):979
Rogers GB, Keating DJ, Young RL, Wong ML, Licinio J, Wesselingh S (2016) From gut dysbiosis to altered brain function and mental illness: mechanisms and pathways. Mol Psychiatry 21(6):738. https://doi.org/10.1038/MP.2016.50
Rutsch A, Kantsjö JB, Ronchi F (2020) The gut-brain axis: how microbiota and host inflammasome influence brain physiology and pathology. Front Immunol 11:604179. https://doi.org/10.3389/FIMMU.2020.604179/BIBTEX
Sabra A, Netticadan T, Wijekoon C (2021) Grape bioactive molecules, and the potential health benefits in reducing the risk of heart diseases. Food Chemistry: X 12:100149
Salim S, Ahmad F, Banu A, Mohammad F (2023) Gut microbiome and Parkinson’s disease: perspective on pathogenesis and treatment. J Adv Res 50:83. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JARE.2022.10.013
Sanborn V, Gunstad J (2020) The potential mediation of the effects of physical activity on cognitive function by the gut microbiome. Geriatrics 5(4):63
Sarkar A, Lehto SM, Harty S, Dinan TG, Cryan JF, Burnet PWJ (2016) Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria–gut–brain signals. Trends Neurosci 39(11):763. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TINS.2016.09.002
Saraf MK, Prabhakar S, Khanduja KL, Anand A (2011) Bacopa monniera attenuates scopolamine-induced impairment of spatial memory in mice. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2011:236186. https://doi.org/10.1093/ECAM/NEQ038
Selkoe DJ, Lansbury PJ (1999) Alzheimer’s disease is the most common neurodegenerative disorder. In: Basic Neurochemistry: molecular, cellular and medical aspects, vol 6, pp 101–102
Shi C, Liu J, Wu F, Yew DT (2010) Ginkgo biloba Extract in Alzheimer’s disease: from action mechanisms to medical practice. Int J Mol Sci 11(1):107. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS11010107
Shi N, Li N, Duan X, Niu H (2017) Interaction between the gut microbiome and mucosal immune system. Mil Med Res 4:1–7
Shreiner AB, Kao JY, Young VB (2015) The gut microbiome in health and in disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 31(1):69. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOG.0000000000000139
Silva YP, Bernardi A, Frozza RL (2020) The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication. Front Endocrinol 11:508738. https://doi.org/10.3389/FENDO.2020.00025/BIBTEX
Silva J, Alves C, Freitas R, Martins A, Pinteus S, Ribeiro J, Gaspar H, Alfonso A, Pedrosa R (2019) Antioxidant and neuroprotective potential of the brown seaweed Bifurcaria bifurcata in an in vitro Parkinson’s disease model. Marine Drugs 17(2):85
Simioni C, Zauli G, Martelli AM, Vitale M, Sacchetti G, Gonelli A, Neri LM (2018) Oxidative stress: role of physical exercise and antioxidant nutraceuticals in adulthood and aging. Oncotarget 9(24):17181. https://doi.org/10.18632/ONCOTARGET.24729
Simon E, Călinoiu LF, Mitrea L, Vodnar DC (2021) Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics: implications and beneficial effects against irritable bowel syndrome. Nutrients 13(6):2112
Singh N, Bhalla M, de Jager P, Gilca M (2011) An overview on Ashwagandha: A Rasayana (Rejuvenator) of Ayurveda. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med 8(5 Suppl):208. https://doi.org/10.4314/AJTCAM.V8I5S.9
Skowron K, Budzyńska A, Wiktorczyk-Kapischke N, Chomacka K, Grudlewska-Buda K, Wilk M, Wałecka-Zacharska E, Andrzejewska M, Gospodarek-Komkowska E (2022) The role of Psychobiotics in supporting the treatment of disturbances in the functioning of the nervous system—a systematic review. Int J Mol Sci 23(14):7820
Socała K, Doboszewska U, Szopa A, Serefko A, Włodarczyk M, Zielińska A, Poleszak E, Fichna J, Wlaź P (2021) The role of microbiota-gut-brain axis in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. Pharmacol Res 172:105840. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHRS.2021.105840
Sorboni SG, Moghaddam HS, Jafarzadeh-Esfehani R, Soleimanpour S (2022) A comprehensive review on the role of the gut microbiome in human neurological disorders. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 35(1) https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00338-20
Speers AB, Cabey KA, Soumyanath A, Wright KM (2021) Effects of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) on stress and the stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders anxiety, depression, and insomnia. Curr Neuropharmacol 19(9):1468. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X19666210712151556
Strandwitz P (2018) Neurotransmitter modulation by the gut microbiota. Brain Res 1693(Pt B):128. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BRAINRES.2018.03.015
Suganya K, Koo BS (2020) Gut–brain axis: role of gut microbiota on neurological disorders and how probiotics/prebiotics beneficially modulate microbial and immune pathways to improve brain functions. Int J Mol Sci 21(20):1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS21207551
Sun AY, Wang Q, Simonyi A, Sun GY (2010) Resveratrol as a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases. Mol Neurobiol 41(2–3):375. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12035-010-8111-Y
Sun LJ, Li JN, Nie YZ (2020) Gut hormones in microbiota-gut-brain cross-talk. Chin Med J 133(7):826. https://doi.org/10.1097/CM9.0000000000000706
Syed YY (2020) Sodium Oligomannate: first approval. Drugs 80(4):441–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40265-020-01268-1
Szajnar K, Pawlos M, Znamirowska A (2021) The effect of the addition of chokeberry fiber on the quality of sheep’s milk fermented by Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus acidophilus. International Journal of Food Science, 2021 https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7928745
Takiishi T, Fenero CI, Câmara NO (2017) Intestinal barrier and gut microbiota: shaping our immune responses throughout life. Tissue barriers 5(4):e1373208
Tansey MG, Goldberg MS (2010) Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease: its role in neuronal death and implications for therapeutic intervention. Neurobiol Dis 37(3):510. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NBD.2009.11.004
Thursby E, Juge N (2017) Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochemical Journal 474(11):1823. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20160510
Tiwari P, Dwivedi R, Bansal M, Tripathi M, Dada R (2023) Role of gut microbiota in neurological disorders and its therapeutic significance. J Clin Med 12(4):1650
Ullah H, Arbab S, Tian Y, Liu CQ, Chen Y, Qijie L, Khan MI, Hassan IU, Li K (2023) The gut microbiota–brain axis in neurological disorder. Front Neurosci 17:1225875
Unger MS, Li E, Scharnagl L, Poupardin R, Altendorfer B, Mrowetz H, Hutter-Paier B, Weiger TM, Heneka MT, Attems J, Aigner L (2020) CD8+ T-cells infiltrate Alzheimer’s disease brains and regulate neuronal- and synapse-related gene expression in APP-PS1 transgenic mice. Brain Behav Immun 89:67–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BBI.2020.05.070
Varesi A, Pierella E, Romeo M, Piccini GB, Alfano C, Bjørklund G, Oppong A, Ricevuti G, Esposito C, Chirumbolo S, Pascale A (2022) The potential role of gut microbiota in Alzheimer’s disease: from diagnosis to treatment. Nutrients 14(3):668
Vlasova AN, Kandasamy S, Chattha KS, Rajashekara G, Saif LJ (2016) Comparison of probiotic lactobacilli and bifidobacteria effects, immune responses and rotavirus vaccines and infection in different host species. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 172:72. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.VETIMM.2016.01.003
Vorhees CV, Williams MT (2006) Morris water maze: procedures for assessing spatial and related forms of learning and memory. Nat Protoc 1(2):848. https://doi.org/10.1038/NPROT.2006.116
Wakabayashi K, Tanji K, Mori F, Takahashi H (2007) The Lewy body in Parkinson’s disease: molecules implicated in the formation and degradation of alpha-synuclein aggregates. Neuropathology : Official Journal of the Japanese Society of Neuropathology 27(5):494–506. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1440-1789.2007.00803.X
Wallace CJ, Milev R (2017) The effects of probiotics on depressive symptoms in humans: a systematic review. Ann General Psychiatry 16:1–10
Wallen ZD, Appah M, Dean MN, Sesler CL, Factor SA, Molho E, Zabetian CP, Standaert DG, Payami H (2020) Characterizing dysbiosis of gut microbiome in PD: evidence for overabundance of opportunistic pathogens. Npj. Parkinson's Disease 6(1):11
Wang X, Sun G, Feng T, Zhang J, Huang X, Wang T, Xie Z, Chu X, Yang J, Wang H, Chang S, Gong Y, Ruan L, Zhang G, Yan S, Lian W, Du C, Yang D, Zhang Q, Geng M (2019) Sodium oligomannate therapeutically remodels gut microbiota and suppresses gut bacterial amino acids-shaped neuroinflammation to inhibit Alzheimer’s disease progression. Cell Research 29(10):787–803. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41422-019-0216-X
Wang T, Kuang W, Chen W, Xu W, Zhang L, Li Y et al (2020) A phase II randomized trial of sodium oligomannate in Alzheimer’s dementia. Alzheimers Res Ther 12:1–10
Waris A, Ali A, Khan AU, Asim M, Zamel D, Fatima K, Raziq A, Khan MA, Akbar N, Baset A, Abourehab MA (2022) Applications of various types of nanomaterials for the treatment of neurological disorders. Nanomaterials 12(13):2140
Wasén C, Simonsen E, Ekwudo MN, Profant MR, Cox LM (2022) The emerging role of the microbiome in Alzheimer’s disease. Int Rev Neurobiol 167:101. https://doi.org/10.1016/BS.IRN.2022.09.001
Webberley TS, Bevan RJ, Kerry-Smith J, Dally J, Michael DR, Thomas S, Rees M, Morgan JE, Marchesi JR, Good MA, Plummer SF (2023) Assessment of Lab4P probiotic effects on cognition in 3xTg-AD Alzheimer’s disease model mice and the SH-SY5Y neuronal cell line. Int J Mol Sci 24(5):4683
Wu S, Liu X, Jiang R, Yan X, Ling Z (2021) Roles and mechanisms of gut microbiota in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Front Aging Neurosci 13:650047
Wu HJ, Wu E (2012) The role of gut microbiota in immune homeostasis and autoimmunity. Gut Microbes 3(1):4. https://doi.org/10.4161/GMIC.19320
Yadang FSA, Nguezeye Y, Kom CW, Betote PHD, Mamat A, Tchokouaha LRY, Taiwé GS, Agbor GA, Bum EN (2020) Scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice: neuroprotective effects of Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Valh (Apocynaceae) aqueous extract. Int J Alzheimers Dis. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6372059
Yang D, Zhao D, Ali Shah SZ, Wu W, Lai M, Zhang X, Li J, Guan Z, Zhao H, Li W, Gao H, Zhou X, Yang L (2019) The role of the gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Front Neurol 10:1155. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNEUR.2019.01155
Yang J, Kurnia P, Henning SM, Lee R, Huang J, Garcia MC, Surampudi V, Heber D, Li Z (2021) Effect of standardized grape powder consumption on the gut microbiome of healthy subjects: a pilot study. Nutrients 13(11):3965
Yong SJ, Tong T, Chew J, Lim WL (2020) Antidepressive mechanisms of probiotics and their therapeutic potential. Front Neurosci 13:468446. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNINS.2019.01361/BIBTEX
Yu T, Kong J, Zhang L, Gu X, Wang M, Guo T (2019) New crosstalk between probiotics lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus subtilis. Sci Rep 9(1):13151
Yuan S, Liu KJ, Qi Z (2020) Occludin regulation of blood–brain barrier and potential therapeutic target in ischemic stroke. Brain Circulation 6(3):152. https://doi.org/10.4103/BC.BC_29_20
Zarfeshany A, Asgary S, Javanmard SH (2014) Potent health effects of pomegranate. Adv Biomed Res 3(1):100. https://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.129371
Zhang Y, Geng R, Tu Q (2021) Gut microbial involvement in Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis. Aging (Albany NY) 13(9):13359. https://doi.org/10.18632/AGING.202994
Zhang H, Chen Y, Wang Z, Xie G, Liu M, Yuan B, Chai H, Wang W, Cheng P (2022) Implications of gut microbiota in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Immunol 13:785644
Zhao Z, Ning J, Bao XQ, Shang M, Ma J, Li G, Zhang D (2021) Fecal microbiota transplantation protects rotenone-induced Parkinson’s disease mice via suppressing inflammation mediated by the lipopolysaccharide-TLR4 signaling pathway through the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Microbiome 9:1–27
Zhou L, Foster JA (2015) Psychobiotics and the gut–brain axis: in the pursuit of happiness. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 11:715. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S61997
Zhou C, Zhao L, Wang K, Qi Q, Wang M, Yang L, Sun P, Mu H (2019) MicroRNA-146a inhibits NF-κB activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production by regulating IRAK1 expression in THP-1 cells. Exp Ther Med 18(4):3078. https://doi.org/10.3892/ETM.2019.7881
Zhu W, Gregory JC, Org E, Buffa JA, Gupta N, Wang Z, Li L, Fu X, Wu Y, Mehrabian M, Sartor RB, McIntyre TM, Silverstein RL, Tang WHW, Didonato JA, Brown JM, Lusis AJ, Hazen SL (2016) Gut microbial metabolite TMAO enhances platelet hyperreactivity and thrombosis risk. Cell 165(1):111. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2016.02.011
Zhu F, Li C, Chu F, Tian X, Zhu J (2020) Target dysbiosis of gut microbes as a future therapeutic manipulation in Alzheimer’s disease. Front Aging Neurosci 12:544235
Zong B, Yu F, Zhang X, Zhao W, Sun P, Li S, Li L (2022) Understanding how physical exercise improves Alzheimer’s disease: cholinergic and monoaminergic systems. Front Aging Neurosci 14:869507
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Director, PSIT- Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), Dr A.K. Rai for his continuous support and motivation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
P.W. conceived and designed the concept of review. N.A. and A.P. contributed literature search. H.P. analyzed data. N.A. and A.P. wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript. The authors confirm that no paper mill and artificial intelligence was used.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
This is a review; thus, no ethics approval is required.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Aziz, N., Wal, P., Patel, A. et al. A comprehensive review on the pharmacological role of gut microbiome in neurodegenerative disorders: potential therapeutic targets. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-024-03109-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-024-03109-4